BIO 300 Exam 3 Chapter 14,15,16 Flashcards
Define emotion in terms of two components: ?
Emotions demonstrate valence, or an?
Emotions differ from moods, how?
The functions of emotion: why did they evolve? 4 things?
- Physical sensation → goose bumps or rapid heart beat - emotion is embodied like smile feel happy or hard to be angry when lay down
- Feeling → conscious subjective perception or experience
Emotions demonstrate valence, or an overall positive or negative quality
Emotions differ from moods, which are more general states that last a longer time than emotions - I was in a good mood but felt different emotions throughout the day
Evolve:
1. Emotion has adaptive value - fear leads to escape, anger leads to attack, disgust leads to avoid
2. Emotions help communicate needs to others and understand others’ needs.
3. Aids in quick decision making - decide based on how we think an outcome will make us feel
4. Emotions and moral decisions
Emotions and Moral Decisions:
Contemplating the footbridge or lifeboat dilemma activates brain areas known to respond to emotions, including?
People with strongest autonomic arousal?
Contemplating the footbridge or lifeboat dilemma activates brain areas known to respond to emotions, including parts of the prefrontal cortex and cingulate gyrus
People with strongest autonomic arousal(physical HR, BP, goosebumps, sweating - someone who is nervous shaking more on edge) are least likely to make the decision to kill one person to save five others
The Evolution and Adaptive Benefits of Emotion: Darwin concluded that emotional expressions evolved.
How could emotions improve chances of survival?
1. General arousal?
2. Management of?
3. Nonverbal communication: ?
- General arousal and then can make decision of what you should do next - emotional tells you to react (running away from tiger with more arousal see great performance but to complete a hard puzzle need a low level of arousal so is task specific)
- Management of approach/avoidance behavior - positive for eating and negative for rotting food or snake lead to avoidance but those with brain damage in emotion struggle to make decisions
- Nonverbal communication: body language to communicate which aid in survival like body expression of fear
Theories of Emotion
What relationship, if any, does the feeling of having butterflies in your stomach have with your subjective sense of being afraid?
Theories of emotion emphasizing bottom-up processing build the emotional experience from ?
Theories emphasizing top-down processing rely on ?
What relationship, if any, does the feeling of having butterflies in your stomach have with your subjective sense of being afraid? - Definition of emotion being embodied
Theories of emotion emphasizing bottom-up processing build the emotional experience from the physical sensations (my stomach is upset) up through the cognitive appraisal of the situation (I’m scared).
Theories emphasizing top-down processing rely on cognitive appraisal of a situation (I have a gold medal around my neck) to organize and interpret incoming physical sensations (my heart is beating fast).
The James-Lange Theory suggests that an awareness of our?
We feel sorry because
angry because
afraid because
Perceived stimulus THEN?
A variation of the James-Lange theory is a facial feedback hypothesis, or the suggestion that?
According to catharsis theory, emotions fill a?
Imitating the facial expressions of others might contribute to?
Limitation of James-Lange theory: ?
James-Lange theory suggests that an awareness of our physical state leads to the identification of a subjective emotional feeling - three parts: cognitive, behavioral, and emotional
- “We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble”
- Event → Appraisal (cognitive aspect) → Action(behavioral aspect) → Emotional feeling(feeling of aspect)
Perceived stimulus - specific physical responses - subjective feeling
A variation of the James-Lange theory is a facial feedback hypothesis, or the suggestion that our facial expressions affect the way we feel → pencil in mouth rate cartoon
– Intentionally making facial movements can stimulate physical responses that are similar to spontaneous emotional expression.
According to catharsis theory, emotions fill a reservoir. - example kids play with doll and those who watched people hurt doll hurt doll and those who play nice with doll play nice - so aggressive TV makes you more aggressive
– When the reservoir is full, the emotions will “overflow,” emptying the person of that emotion - aggressive beat up pillow won’t be aggressive anymore
Imitating the facial expressions of others might contribute to empathy, the ability to understand another person’s feelings.
Limitation of James-Lange theory: many emotional states are accompanied by overlapping physical sensations (scared or happy HR goes up)
Cannon-Bard theory proposes that ?
The CNS can produce an emotion directly, without ?
Capilano Canyon Bridge experiment: ?
Perceived stimulus THEN?
Cannon-Bard theory proposes that the subjective and physical responses occur simultaneously and independently
The CNS can produce an emotion directly, without needing feedback from the PNS
Capilano Canyon Bridge experiment: bridge is high above rocks and researcher women stopped men from crossing and this lead to men unable to distinguish between fear and sexual arousal
Perceived stimulus - physical responses OR subjective feeling
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory proposes that ?
Arousal might lead to ?
Perceived stimulus THEN?
Schachter-Singer two-factor theory proposes that general arousal leads to cognitive assessment of the context, which in turn leads to the identification of an emotional state
Arousal might lead to several interpretations, based on the way people assess their situation
Perceived stimulus - general arousal - assessment of surroundings - subjective feeling
The Expression and Recognition of Emotion:
1. Human adults can express and interpret emotions ?
2. In one experiment, observers correctly judged whether a teacher liked an off-camera student after watching only ?
3. We might believe that we can hide our feelings, but the ?
Facial Expression:
1. The facial nerves originate in the two facial nuclei located on either side of the?
2. These nuclei do not ?
3. The facial nuclei receive input from the?
4. The upper third of the face is controlled differently than ?
5. Ipsilateral vs contralateral control → ?
The Expression and Recognition of Emotion:
1. Human adults can express and interpret emotions accurately
2. In one experiment, observers correctly judged whether a teacher liked an off-camera student after watching only 10 seconds of a filmed interaction
3. We might believe that we can hide our feelings, but the subtleties of emotional expression can give us away
Facial Expression:
1. The facial nerves originate in the two facial nuclei located on either side of the midline in the pons
2. These nuclei do not communicate directly with each other
3. The facial nuclei receive input from the primary motor cortex located in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe as well as from several subcortical motor areas
4. The upper third of the face is controlled differently than the lower two thirds
5. Ipsilateral vs contralateral control → upper third of face get info from both but lower 2/3rd of face is contralateral
Voluntary and Spontaneous Expressions:
1. Facial expressions of patients with right hemisphere damage and ?
2. “Volitional facial paresis” VS “emotional facial paresis” ?
Biological Contributions to Emotional Expression:
1. Darwin assumed that emotional expressions had a ?
2. Many emotional expressions appear to be viewed similarly across ?
Do People Have a Few Basic Emotions?
1. We rarely interpret emotion based solely on?
2. Tennis players study?
3. What two important?
Voluntary and Spontaneous Expressions:
1. Facial expressions of patients with right hemisphere damage and Parkinson’s disease.
2. “Volitional facial paresis” refers to a condition where a person has difficulty moving their facial muscles voluntarily, meaning they can’t consciously smile or frown, while their facial expressions related to emotions may still be intact; whereas “emotional facial paresis” indicates impaired facial muscle activation when expressing emotions, but with normal voluntary facial movements, essentially meaning they can smile on command but not when genuinely happy
Biological Contributions to Emotional Expression:
1. Darwin assumed that emotional expressions had a strong biological basis.
2. Many emotional expressions appear to be viewed similarly across human cultures (universal) so is genetic
Do People Have a Few Basic Emotions?
1. We rarely interpret emotion based solely on facial expressions.
2. Tennis players study - need facial expression and body
3. Context and gestures important
Biological Contributions to Emotional Expression - More evidence to support Darwin’s view:
1. Children’s capacities for emotional expression and recognition develop according to a ?
2. Infants who are ?
3. Monozygotic vs dizygotic twins
4. Rhesus monkeys raised in ?
Environmental Contributions to Emotional Expression - Culture and learning can modify emotional expressions:
1. The presence of other people often influences the ?
2. Cultures typically have different display rules, or norms that specify when, where, and how a person should ?
3. Japanese vs American students?
Biological Correlates of Emotion:
1. Emotional states are accompanied by complex, interacting physical responses that usually combine activation of the 6 brain areas?
Biological Contributions to Emotional Expression - More evidence to support Darwin’s view:
1. Children’s capacities for emotional expression and recognition develop according to a regular timeline (universal), with little influence by experience.
2. Infants who are blind from birth
3. Monozygotic vs dizygotic twins
4. Rhesus monkeys raised in isolation
Environmental Contributions to Emotional Expression - Culture and learning can modify emotional expressions:
1. The presence of other people often influences the intensity of emotional expression.
2. Cultures typically have different display rules, or norms that specify when, where, and how a person should express emotion.
3. Japanese vs American students(did not change viewing alone or in a group)
Biological Correlates of Emotion:
1. Emotional states are accompanied by complex, interacting physical responses that usually combine activation of the autonomic nervous system, the amygdala, the insula, the cingulate cortex, the basal ganglia, and the cerebral cortex.
Individual Differences in Emotional Expression and Recognition
- Individuals are different from one another in their overall ?
- Individuals also vary in their overall emotional style, ?
- Kagan’s (1997) foundational research on emotion - behavioral inhibition ?
- Correct identification of another person’s facial expressions of emotion is critical to ?
- Twin studies suggest the ability to interpret the emotional expressions of others is heavily ?
- The ability to read others’ emotions is distorted by several psychological disorders ?
- Incarcerated murders respond more to?
- Individuals are different from one another in their overall intensity of emotional expression and their abilities to identify the emotions of others correctly.
- Individuals also vary in their overall emotional style, or positive or negative emotional tendencies.
- Kagan’s (1997) foundational research on emotion - behavioral inhibition (if child acts out as child will be shy as an adult - can see this as early as four month old) - infants highly reactive to stimuli are more likely to have anxiety and mood disorders → kids also respond more to smell
- Incarcerated murders respond more to pleasant and unpleasant - Correct identification of another person’s facial expressions of emotion is critical to competent social functioning.
- Twin studies suggest the ability to interpret the emotional expressions of others is heavily influenced by genetics.
- The ability to read others’ emotions is distorted by several psychological disorders - anti personality, schizophrenia, autism
- Incarcerated murders respond more to pleasant and unpleasant
Can we spot a liar?
Despite our ability to recognize emotions, we can be ?
Deception, or a false communication that benefits the communicator, along with the ability to detect deception have been shaped by ?
Some people can produce authentic-looking, fake emotional expressions.
– Plants/Primates who deceive will ?
– The Duchenne smile hypothesis is that smiles that ?
Polygraph tests are widely used by both law enforcement and employers despite their empirical unreliability.
– In one study, a panel of experts evaluated polygraph data and declared a ?
In an effort to improve on the unreliable polygraph approach, researchers have focused on the cognitive costs of lying. Lying taxes executive controls in three ways:
1.the truth must be held in ?
2.telling a lie requires ?
3.transitioning in thought between truth and lie requires ?
A normally articulate person stumbles verbally, adding ?
The arousal produced by lying is also reflected in the?
– People who are lying stiffen the?
Constructing a plausible lie takes more time than simply accessing and expressing an ?
An excellent signal of lying is a ?
– Truthful people include 20 to 30% more?
Asking a person to tell a story backwards in time can also ?
fMRIs may be used in the future to detect changes in brain activation ?
Ethical issues - brain scan to read mind is invasion of ?
Despite our ability to recognize emotions, we can be deceived by liars.
Deception, or a false communication that benefits the communicator, along with the ability to detect deception have been shaped by natural selection.
Some people can produce authentic-looking, fake emotional expressions.
– Plants/Primates who deceive will pass it down like camouflage
– The Duchenne smile hypothesis is that smiles that include eye constriction (AU6) are the product of genuine positive emotion, whereas smiles that do not are either falsified or related to negative emotion
Polygraph tests are widely used by both law enforcement and employers despite their empirical unreliability.
– In one study, a panel of experts evaluated polygraph data and declared a third of the innocent people to be guilty, whereas a quarter of the guilty were deemed to be innocent.
In an effort to improve on the unreliable polygraph approach, researchers have focused on the cognitive costs of lying. Lying taxes executive controls in three ways:
1.the truth must be held in working memory
2.telling a lie requires response inhibition to avoid telling the truth
3.transitioning in thought between truth and lie requires task switching
A normally articulate person stumbles verbally, adding um’s and uh’s as they struggle to assemble a plausible lie.
The arousal produced by lying is also reflected in the body and face like lacking eye contact or swinging hands/feet
– People who are lying stiffen the head and upper body, nod the head less frequently, and use fewer gestures than when telling the truth.
Constructing a plausible lie takes more time than simply accessing and expressing an accurate memory.
An excellent signal of lying is a relative lack of detail in a story.
– Truthful people include 20 to 30% more detail in a story compared to liars.
Asking a person to tell a story backwards in time can also illuminate lying.
fMRIs may be used in the future to detect changes in brain activation during lying.
Ethical issues - brain scan to read mind is invasion of privacy or bodily autonomy
The Autonomic Nervous System
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) participates in the general?
Autonomic responses associated with negative emotions were ?
However, identifying differences in autonomic correlates between two ?
Emotions correlate with arousal of the?
However, no emotion is associated with a distinctive ?
– For example, heart rate and breathing rate increase with the intensity of an emotion, but they do not ?
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) participates in the general arousal associated with emotional states.
Autonomic responses associated with negative emotions were stronger than those associated with positive emotions.
However, identifying differences in autonomic correlates between two positive states (such as happiness and hope) or between two negative states (such as anger and fear) is far more difficult.
Emotions correlate with arousal of the autonomic nervous system.
However, no emotion is associated with a distinctive pattern of autonomic activity.
– For example, heart rate and breathing rate increase with the intensity of an emotion, but they do not distinguish fear from anger.
The Amygdala and the Insula
The amygdala and the insula are associated with the identification of WHAT TWO?
Klüver-Bucy syndrome: collection of symptoms including ?
Monkey initiate born to fear fire and snakes but with damage ?
klüver-bucy syndrome which
Behavioral: ?
Cognitive: ?
Emotional: ?
Dietary: ?
Patient SM amygdala were destroyed by a condition known as Urbach-Wiethe disease - no fear response and only event to trigger her fear when she thought ?
and never made eye contact only look at ?Fear can be viewed in?
Damage to the amygdala affects the processing of ?
Toxoplasma gondii – ?
Individual differences in anxiety correlate with ?
On the average, people who show a stronger startle response to loud noises tend to favor ?
The behavior of individuals with damage to the insula suggests this area participates in making the distinction between ?
Positive feelings are associated with activity in the rostral areas of the ?
Participants were asked to rate photos on a scale from very pleasant to very unpleasant while indicating how arousing each photo was.
– Participants with damage to the insula rated the photos?
– Participants with damage to the amygdala ?
– Results suggest that the ?
The amygdala and the insula are associated with the identification of emotional stimuli and the arousal resulting from that identification.
Klüver-Bucy syndrome: collection of symptoms including oral exploration and sexual activity(hypersexuality) bc damage to bilateral temporal lobe and amygdala. Monkey initiate born to fear fire and snakes but with damage have no fear response so walk up to snakes. - reduced emotional response - fear conditioning does not work when damage to amygdala
klüver-bucy syndrome which
Behavioral: Hyperorality, hypersexuality, hypermetamorphosis, placidity, and docility
Cognitive: Visual agnosia, amnesia, and dementia
Emotional: Loss of normal fear and anger responses, indifference, and other emotional changes
Dietary: Changes in dietary habits, compulsive eating, binge eating and purging, and eating inedible objects Sleep: Insomnia, narcolepsy, night terrors, and restless legs
Patient SM amygdala were destroyed by a condition known as Urbach-Wiethe disease - no fear response and only event to trigger her fear when she thought she was literally dying by gas chamber and never made eye contact only look at people’s mouths but could recognize fearful expression she just didn’t experience it. Fear can be viewed in the eyes and not other emotions can be so easily understood from eyes like happiness is mostly with a mouth. – When researchers asked SM to look at the eyes, she recognized fearful expressions.
Damage to the amygdala affects the processing of faces.
Toxoplasma gondii – Toxin damages the rat’s amygdala.
Individual differences in anxiety correlate with amygdala activity. Anxiety depends on more than just the amygdala.
On the average, people who show a stronger startle response to loud noises tend to favor greater reliance on military and police powers.
The behavior of individuals with damage to the insula suggests this area participates in making the distinction between positive and negative stimuli.
Positive feelings are associated with activity in the rostral areas of the insula and negative feelings with the more caudal areas.
Participants were asked to rate photos on a scale from very pleasant to very unpleasant while indicating how arousing each photo was.
– Participants with damage to the insula rated the photos as more neutral and as less arousing than control participants did.
– Participants with damage to the amygdala did not show differences in their ratings of positivity and negativity compared to controls, but they showed much less arousal in response to negative photos.
– Results suggest that the amygdala initiates arousal, especially in response to negative stimuli, while the insula helps us discriminate between positive and negative stimuli.
The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) participates in the brain’s ?
– Contributes to conscious, cognitive appraisals of threat ?
The basal ganglia participate in ?
– Strokes that damage the basal ganglia produce an overall decrease in ?
– Recognizing expressions of ?
The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) participates in the brain’s pain matrix, which processes information about physical pain - physical pain more likely to be in emotional pain
– Contributes to conscious, cognitive appraisals of threat (that’s a frightening snake, but it’s in a terrarium) compared to less conscious signals arising from the amygdala.
The basal ganglia participate in voluntary movement, including the coordination of movement in response to emotional stimuli - disgust
– Strokes that damage the basal ganglia produce an overall decrease in the experience of emotional intensity.
– Recognizing expressions of disgust in Parkinson’s or Huntington’s patients.
The Cerebral Cortex
When humans experience cortical damage, particularly in the frontal lobes?
Frontal lobe damage is associated with a reduction in ?
Happily married women were given moderately painful shocks to their ankles. Husband hand, male stranger, and no body. On various trials, they held the hand of their husband, a man they did not know, or no one.
- Holding the husband’s hand ?
A man with prefrontal cortex damage expressed ?
Damage to parts of the prefrontal cortex blunts emotions, except for an occasional?
– Impairs ?
– Leads to impulsive ?
– One-shot Dictator game and moral dilemma decisions - ?
Frontal Lobotomy - ?
The right hemisphere plays a greater role than the left in ?
When humans experience cortical damage, particularly in the frontal lobes, emotional disturbance often results.
Frontal lobe damage is associated with a reduction in emotional feelings, especially those of fear and anxiety - Phineas Gage had rod in frontal lobe
Happily married women were given moderately painful shocks to their ankles. Husband hand, male stranger, and no body. On various trials, they held the hand of their husband, a man they did not know, or no one.
- Holding the husband’s hand reduced the response most as indicated by fMRI in several brain areas, including the prefrontal cortex which reduced stress
A man with prefrontal cortex damage expressed almost no emotions.
Damage to parts of the prefrontal cortex blunts emotions, except for an occasional outburst of anger.
– Impairs decision-making
– Leads to impulsive decision-making without pausing to consider consequences - executive functions
– One-shot Dictator game and moral dilemma decisions - frontal lobe damage don’t spilt or give money keep it bc don’t feel not guilt or have trust and will make utilitarian decision quickly and clammy kill the 1 to safe the 5 → most people split it evenly
Frontal Lobotomy - damage or detach frontal lobe from the rest of the brain - ice pick surgery
The right hemisphere plays a greater role than the left in processing emotion for most people.
Patterns of Activation and Emotion: We do not have ?
Emotion Regulation:
– To control the experience and expression of emotion, we use ?
– People exert both conscious and unconscious control over ?
– You can use selective attention to focus away ?
– In distraction, we switch our focus from the emotional stimulus to ?
– In reappraisal, the meaning of a?
– Finally, we can suppress the display ?
Patterns of Activation and Emotion: We do not have “happy centers” and “sadness centers” in the brain - no evidence of localization
Emotion Regulation:
– To control the experience and expression of emotion, we use emotion regulation.
– People exert both conscious and unconscious control over their emotional state using several strategies.
– You can use selective attention to focus away from an emotional stimulus.
– In distraction, we switch our focus from the emotional stimulus to internal thoughts.
– In reappraisal, the meaning of a stimulus is changed. - an assessment of something or someone again or in a different way.
– Finally, we can suppress the display of emotion.
Neuropsychology is a specialty field within clinical psychology that seeks to understand and treat patients with cognitive impairments resulting from: which 3?
Neuropsychologists are expected to understand a broad range of relationships between ?
Neuropsychology is carried out in the US by ?
Neuropsychological Assessment:
– Goal is to develop an informed ?
— Choice of methods depends on ?
Standardized tests:
– Comparisons with ?
– Comparisons with abilities ?
– BLANK tests
– BLANK battery
Neurocognitive Disorders:
– Despite the protection that the WHICH 3? provide to the brain, damage can still occur.
– Neurocognitive disorders are described in the?
– Neurocognitive disorders are diagnosed when a patient experiences a decline in functioning in one or more of the following cognitive domains after a known challenge to the nervous system: which 5?
Neuropsychology is a specialty field within clinical psychology that seeks to understand and treat patients with cognitive impairments resulting from: Aging, Disease, and Injury
Neuropsychologists are expected to understand a broad range of relationships between the nervous system and behavior.
Neuropsychology is carried out in the US by licensed doctoral-level clinical psychologists who complete specialized training.
Neuropsychological Assessment:
– Goal is to develop an informed treatment plan.
— Choice of methods depends on the issues involved.
Standardized tests:
– Comparisons with population
– Comparisons with abilities unaffected by condition
– IQ tests
– Halstead-Reitan battery
Neurocognitive Disorders:
– Despite the protection that the skull bones, cerebrospinal fluid, and blood–brain barrier provide to the brain, damage can still occur.
– Neurocognitive disorders are described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).
– Neurocognitive disorders are diagnosed when a patient experiences a decline in functioning in one or more of the following cognitive domains after a known challenge to the nervous system: Attention, Executive function, Learning and memory, Perception and movement, and Social cognition
Alzheimer’s Disease
Alzheimer’s disease is one of several ?
Other forms of dementia include which 2?
Probable Alzheimer’s disease is diagnosed based on:
- Genetic?
- Clear evidence of ?
- A steady, gradual loss of ?
Diagnostic methods: which 3?
Alzheimer’s disease risk increases with ?
Atrophy of the cerebral cortex and neurodegeneration: which 2?
Treatments:
– Experimental antibodies targeting?
– Approved treatments slow down, but do not ?
– Increasing seafood and ?
– Acetylcholinesterase ?
– Use of antipsychotics is ?
Alzheimer’s disease is one of several degenerative conditions associated with aging that results in dementia.
Other forms of dementia include frontotemporal lobar degeneration and Lewy body disease.
Probable Alzheimer’s disease is diagnosed based on:
- Genetic testing or family history
- Clear evidence of learning and memory impairments
- A steady, gradual loss of cognitive function without plateaus
Diagnostic methods:
- Autopsy
- Biomarkers in CSF and blood
- PET and MRI scanning
Alzheimer’s disease risk increases with age.
Atrophy of the cerebral cortex and neurodegeneration:
- Neurofibrillary tangles and tau proteins
- Beta amyloid and amyloid plaques
Treatments:
– Experimental antibodies targeting beta amyloid clear plaques
– Approved treatments slow down, but do not reverse the course of the disease
– Increasing seafood and omega-3 fatty acid intake
– Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
– Use of antipsychotics is associated with earlier death
Vascular Disease (Stroke)
Neurons are totally dependent on the ?
A stroke occurs when the brain’s blood supply is interrupted by either a ?
Characteristics of types of stroke:
– Hemorrhage 20% - cause: ? - outcomes: ?
– Ischemic 80% - cause: ? - outcomes: ?
A stroke occurs when the brain’s blood supply is interrupted by either ?
Risk factors include ?
Cerebral hemorrhage: ?
The sudden blockage of a blood vessel:
– Results in ?
– Infarct ?
– Transient ?
– Thrombosis vs. embolism: ?
Neuronal cell death occurs immediately after a stroke, but prompt medical attention can save the neurons and glia in the ?
- Use of drugs that reduce ?
- Mechanical devices inserted into ?
- Histone ?
- Surgery
- Physical activity
Neurons are totally dependent on the blood supply for oxygen.
A stroke occurs when the brain’s blood supply is interrupted by either a cerebral hemorrhage or a blockage of a blood vessel.
Characteristics of types of stroke:
– Hemorrhage 20% - cause: high BP or vascular abnormalities - outcomes: frequently fatal
– Ischemic 80% - cause: arteriosclerosis or blood clots - outcomes: infarct of varying size (a tissue area that has been damaged due to a lack of blood supply), changes in consciousness, sensation, and movement
A stroke occurs when the brain’s blood supply is interrupted by either hemorrhage (bleeding) or by the sudden blockage of a blood vessel.
Risk factors include age, hypertension (high blood pressure), smoking, diabetes, high cholesterol levels, obesity, and the use of alcohol, cocaine, amphetamines, heroin, and other drugs.
Cerebral hemorrhage: Aneurysms and Blood diseases or exposure to toxic chemicals
The sudden blockage of a blood vessel:
– Results in ischemia (low oxygen levels)
– Infarct (area of dead neural tissue)
– Transient ischemic attacks (TIA)
– Thrombosis vs. embolism: where a blood clot forms and travels in the body
(Thrombosis: A blood clot, or thrombus, forms and remains in a blood vessel, can occur in veins, arteries, or the heart)
(Embolism: A blood clot, or embolus, breaks free from a thrombus and travels to another location in the body)
Neuronal cell death occurs immediately after a stroke, but prompt medical attention can save the neurons and glia in the penumbra (area that surrounds an area of damaged tissue, like the area around a stroke where cells are still potentially salvageable if blood flow is restored quickly)
- Use of drugs that reduce blood clotting
- Mechanical devices inserted into blood vessels
- Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors
- Surgery
- Physical activity
Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are the result of ?
Leading causes of TBI in the US are ?
Increasing numbers of military personnel and civilians in war zones have experienced TBI because of ?
Types of TBI:
Open head injuries:
- Pene?
- Worst consequences when injury affects:
which areas of brain?
Closed head injuries (??): Blow to the ?
– Coup VS countercoup?
– Subdural hematoma - ? similar to?
– White matter damage
Military TBI:
– Can combine ?
Can differ from civilian TBI:
– Severe ?
– Disruption of ?
– Damage to ?
Outcomes of TBI:
- Most individuals recover from concussion in a ?
- Neurocognitive disorder due to traumatic brain injury - set of symptoms that follow for ? long lasting symptoms like ?
- Repeated TBI is especially damaging:
Dementia pugilistica ? : Interactions with ? allele
Is a form of TBI often associated with ?
Treatments for TBI vary widely:
- Medications that inhibit ?
- Medications that enhance ?
- Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors help with?
- Chronic TBI treated by enhancing ?
- Patient and family education
- Virtual reality
Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are the result of physical damage to the brain.
Leading causes of TBI in the US are traffic accidents, gunshot wounds, and falls.
Increasing numbers of military personnel and civilians in war zones have experienced TBI because of blast injuries.
Types of TBI:
Open head injuries:
- Penetration of skull
- Worst consequences when injury affects:
Ventricles, Both hemispheres bilateral, Multiple lobes of the brain
Closed head injuries (concussions): Blow to the head
– Coup(area of brain damage is the site), countercoup(area occurs on the opposite side of the site of damage): Coup injuries occur at the site of impact when the head strikes an object, causing damage to the brain tissue directly beneath the point of impact. Contrecoup injuries occur on the opposite side of the brain from the impact site.
– Subdural hematoma - bruise of brain
occurs when a blood vessel in the space between the skull and the brain (the subdural space) is damaged.
similar to a bruise in that both involve bleeding from damaged blood vessels
– White matter damage
Military TBI:
– Can combine open and closed injuries
Can differ from civilian TBI:
– Severe swelling
– Disruption of blood-brain barrier
– Damage to blood supply
Outcomes of TBI:
- Most individuals recover from concussion in a few weeks
- Neurocognitive disorder due to traumatic brain injury - set of symptoms that follow for days up to years long lasting symptoms like anxiety, depression, PTSD, cognitive deficits
- Repeated TBI is especially damaging:
Dementia pugilistica - boxers syndrome TBI: Interactions with e4 allele
Is a form of TBI often associated with the repeated blows to the head in boxing. Boxers carrying the E4 variant of the APOE gene may be more vulnerable to dementia pugilistica
Treatments for TBI vary widely:
- Medications that inhibit glutamate (excitatory)
- Medications that enhance dopamine activity
- Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors help with improving cognitive performance and attention abilities
- Chronic TBI treated by enhancing dopamine activity produces short-term results, but long-term effects are unknown. Norepinephrine reuptake blockers may be useful for improving cognitive performance and attention abilities
- Patient and family education
- Virtual reality
Substance/Medication-Induced Neurocognitive Disorder
Results from drug use that produces symptoms of ?
Likely drugs: 9 things
Individuals who begin abstinence prior to age ?
Several types of drugs produce specific effects that are capable of producing neurocognitive deficits.
Methamphetamine:
- Increases risk of ?
- Damages ?
Alcohol:
- Nutritional ?
- Korsakoff syndrome: ?
- Confabulation: is a ?
Results from drug use that produces symptoms of neurocognitive disorder outside of intoxication and withdrawal.
Likely drugs: Alcohol, cocaine, methamphetamine, opioids, phencyclidine (PCP), sedatives, hypnotics, antianxiety drugs, and solvents.
Individuals who begin abstinence prior to age 50 years recover more effectively.
Several types of drugs produce specific effects that are capable of producing neurocognitive deficits.
Methamphetamine:
- Increases risk of cardiovascular accidents
- Damages blood-brain barrier
Alcohol:
- Nutritional deficits
- Korsakoff syndrome: a chronic memory disorder that damages the brain and spinal cord, and is often associated with alcoholism and they usually lie not to device but because they have memory deficits
- Confabulation: is a neuropsychiatric disorder wherein a patient generates a false memory without the intention of deceit.
HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorder (HAND)
HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) - Neurological symptoms result directly or indirectly from ?
The initial symptoms are relatively mild: which 6?
Later symptoms: which 5?
HIV does not target neurons; therefore, the virus causes cell death indirectly – The effect of?
Effects microglia, and what other 3?
Contemporary WHAT treatments
Too much WHAT kills cell
HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) - Neurological symptoms result directly or indirectly from HIV or other opportunistic infections.
The initial symptoms are relatively mild: difficulty concentrating, forgetfulness, decreased work productivity, low sex drive, social withdrawal, general apathy.
Later symptoms: imbalance, clumsiness, weakness, memory loss and language impairment.
HIV does not target neurons; therefore, the virus causes cell death indirectly – The effect of HIV on neuronal death is indirect, in that HIV does not target neurons
Effects microglia, astrocytes, endothelial cells and causes apoptosis
Contemporary antiretroviral treatments
Too much Ca kills cell
Prion Diseases
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs): produce clustered WHAT resulting in WHAT.
Symptoms of TSEs include WHICH 3?
The causal factor in TSEs is a single
WHAT? The normal and abnormal versions of a prion are designated as WHICH TWO?
Scrapie was first identified in ?
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or mad-cow disease: is a form of?
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD): is a human ?
Kuru: is a human ?
Symptom Progression: WHICH 4?
Proposal that TSEs were caused by a type of ?
The prion protein can exist in two forms, depending on how it’s folded:
- The normal version became known as ?
- The abnormal version involved in scrapie, the sheep version of TSE, became known as ? lacks ?
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs): produce clustered neural cell death resulting in the brain having a sponge like appearance.
Symptoms of TSEs include psychological disturbances, progressive loss of cognitive function, and finally death.
The causal factor in TSEs is a single abnormal protein known as a prion. The normal and abnormal versions of a prion are designated as PrPc (prion protein cellular) and PrPsc (prion protein scrapie), respectively.
Scrapie was first identified in sheep and goats in 18th century England. The
condition was not spread to people who consumed the meat of infected
animals
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or mad-cow disease: is a form of TSE that affects cattle; also known as mad-cow disease.
Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD): is a human TSE, which results from either genetics or contamination through medical procedures
Kuru: is a human TSE that results from cannibalism.
Fatal familial insomnia
Symptom Progression: psychological disturbances, loss of cognitive function, motor disturbances, death
Proposal that TSEs were caused by a type of infectious agent, a single protein, prion.
The prion protein can exist in two forms, depending on how it’s folded:
- The normal version became known as PrPC (prion protein cellular).
- The abnormal version involved in scrapie, the sheep version of TSE, became known as PrPSC (prion protein scrapie), lacks nucleus acid and cause TSE and misfolds the normal - proteins to become abnormal
Prion proteins have normal and abnormal forms.
