BIO 300 Exam 3 Chapter 14,15,16

Question 1

Define emotion in terms of two components: ?

Emotions demonstrate valence, or an?

Emotions differ from moods, how?

The functions of emotion: why did they evolve? 4 things?

Answer 1

1. Physical sensation → goose bumps or rapid heart beat - emotion is embodied like smile feel happy or hard to be angry when lay down
2. Feeling → conscious subjective perception or experience

Emotions demonstrate valence, or an overall positive or negative quality

Emotions differ from moods, which are more general states that last a longer time than emotions - I was in a good mood but felt different emotions throughout the day

Evolve:
1. Emotion has adaptive value - fear leads to escape, anger leads to attack, disgust leads to avoid
2. Emotions help communicate needs to others and understand others’ needs.
3. Aids in quick decision making - decide based on how we think an outcome will make us feel
4. Emotions and moral decisions

Question 2

Emotions and Moral Decisions:

Contemplating the footbridge or lifeboat dilemma activates brain areas known to respond to emotions, including?

People with strongest autonomic arousal?

Answer 2

Contemplating the footbridge or lifeboat dilemma activates brain areas known to respond to emotions, including parts of the prefrontal cortex and cingulate gyrus

People with strongest autonomic arousal(physical HR, BP, goosebumps, sweating - someone who is nervous shaking more on edge) are least likely to make the decision to kill one person to save five others

Question 3

The Evolution and Adaptive Benefits of Emotion: Darwin concluded that emotional expressions evolved.

How could emotions improve chances of survival?
1. General arousal?
2. Management of?
3. Nonverbal communication: ?

Answer 3

1. General arousal and then can make decision of what you should do next - emotional tells you to react (running away from tiger with more arousal see great performance but to complete a hard puzzle need a low level of arousal so is task specific)
2. Management of approach/avoidance behavior - positive for eating and negative for rotting food or snake lead to avoidance but those with brain damage in emotion struggle to make decisions
3. Nonverbal communication: body language to communicate which aid in survival like body expression of fear

Question 4

Theories of Emotion

What relationship, if any, does the feeling of having butterflies in your stomach have with your subjective sense of being afraid?

Theories of emotion emphasizing bottom-up processing build the emotional experience from ?

Theories emphasizing top-down processing rely on ?

Answer 4

What relationship, if any, does the feeling of having butterflies in your stomach have with your subjective sense of being afraid? - Definition of emotion being embodied

Theories of emotion emphasizing bottom-up processing build the emotional experience from the physical sensations (my stomach is upset) up through the cognitive appraisal of the situation (I’m scared).

Theories emphasizing top-down processing rely on cognitive appraisal of a situation (I have a gold medal around my neck) to organize and interpret incoming physical sensations (my heart is beating fast).

Question 5

The James-Lange Theory suggests that an awareness of our?

We feel sorry because
angry because
afraid because

Perceived stimulus THEN?

A variation of the James-Lange theory is a facial feedback hypothesis, or the suggestion that?

According to catharsis theory, emotions fill a?

Imitating the facial expressions of others might contribute to?

Limitation of James-Lange theory: ?

Answer 5

James-Lange theory suggests that an awareness of our physical state leads to the identification of a subjective emotional feeling - three parts: cognitive, behavioral, and emotional
- “We feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble”
- Event → Appraisal (cognitive aspect) → Action(behavioral aspect) → Emotional feeling(feeling of aspect)

Perceived stimulus - specific physical responses - subjective feeling

A variation of the James-Lange theory is a facial feedback hypothesis, or the suggestion that our facial expressions affect the way we feel → pencil in mouth rate cartoon
– Intentionally making facial movements can stimulate physical responses that are similar to spontaneous emotional expression.

According to catharsis theory, emotions fill a reservoir. - example kids play with doll and those who watched people hurt doll hurt doll and those who play nice with doll play nice - so aggressive TV makes you more aggressive
– When the reservoir is full, the emotions will “overflow,” emptying the person of that emotion - aggressive beat up pillow won’t be aggressive anymore

Imitating the facial expressions of others might contribute to empathy, the ability to understand another person’s feelings.

Limitation of James-Lange theory: many emotional states are accompanied by overlapping physical sensations (scared or happy HR goes up)

Question 6

Cannon-Bard theory proposes that ?

The CNS can produce an emotion directly, without ?

Capilano Canyon Bridge experiment: ?

Perceived stimulus THEN?

Answer 6

Cannon-Bard theory proposes that the subjective and physical responses occur simultaneously and independently

The CNS can produce an emotion directly, without needing feedback from the PNS

Capilano Canyon Bridge experiment: bridge is high above rocks and researcher women stopped men from crossing and this lead to men unable to distinguish between fear and sexual arousal

Perceived stimulus - physical responses OR subjective feeling

Question 7

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory proposes that ?

Arousal might lead to ?

Perceived stimulus THEN?

Answer 7

Schachter-Singer two-factor theory proposes that general arousal leads to cognitive assessment of the context, which in turn leads to the identification of an emotional state

Arousal might lead to several interpretations, based on the way people assess their situation

Perceived stimulus - general arousal - assessment of surroundings - subjective feeling

Question 8

The Expression and Recognition of Emotion:
1. Human adults can express and interpret emotions ?
2. In one experiment, observers correctly judged whether a teacher liked an off-camera student after watching only ?
3. We might believe that we can hide our feelings, but the ?

Facial Expression:
1. The facial nerves originate in the two facial nuclei located on either side of the?
2. These nuclei do not ?
3. The facial nuclei receive input from the?
4. The upper third of the face is controlled differently than ?
5. Ipsilateral vs contralateral control → ?

Answer 8

The Expression and Recognition of Emotion:
1. Human adults can express and interpret emotions accurately
2. In one experiment, observers correctly judged whether a teacher liked an off-camera student after watching only 10 seconds of a filmed interaction
3. We might believe that we can hide our feelings, but the subtleties of emotional expression can give us away

Facial Expression:
1. The facial nerves originate in the two facial nuclei located on either side of the midline in the pons
2. These nuclei do not communicate directly with each other
3. The facial nuclei receive input from the primary motor cortex located in the precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe as well as from several subcortical motor areas
4. The upper third of the face is controlled differently than the lower two thirds
5. Ipsilateral vs contralateral control → upper third of face get info from both but lower 2/3rd of face is contralateral

Question 9

Voluntary and Spontaneous Expressions:
1. Facial expressions of patients with right hemisphere damage and ?
2. “Volitional facial paresis” VS “emotional facial paresis” ?

Biological Contributions to Emotional Expression:
1. Darwin assumed that emotional expressions had a ?
2. Many emotional expressions appear to be viewed similarly across ?

Do People Have a Few Basic Emotions?
1. We rarely interpret emotion based solely on?
2. Tennis players study?
3. What two important?

Answer 9

Voluntary and Spontaneous Expressions:
1. Facial expressions of patients with right hemisphere damage and Parkinson’s disease.
2. “Volitional facial paresis” refers to a condition where a person has difficulty moving their facial muscles voluntarily, meaning they can’t consciously smile or frown, while their facial expressions related to emotions may still be intact; whereas “emotional facial paresis” indicates impaired facial muscle activation when expressing emotions, but with normal voluntary facial movements, essentially meaning they can smile on command but not when genuinely happy

Biological Contributions to Emotional Expression:
1. Darwin assumed that emotional expressions had a strong biological basis.
2. Many emotional expressions appear to be viewed similarly across human cultures (universal) so is genetic

Do People Have a Few Basic Emotions?
1. We rarely interpret emotion based solely on facial expressions.
2. Tennis players study - need facial expression and body
3. Context and gestures important

Question 10

Biological Contributions to Emotional Expression - More evidence to support Darwin’s view:
1. Children’s capacities for emotional expression and recognition develop according to a ?
2. Infants who are ?
3. Monozygotic vs dizygotic twins
4. Rhesus monkeys raised in ?

Environmental Contributions to Emotional Expression - Culture and learning can modify emotional expressions:
1. The presence of other people often influences the ?
2. Cultures typically have different display rules, or norms that specify when, where, and how a person should ?
3. Japanese vs American students?

Biological Correlates of Emotion:
1. Emotional states are accompanied by complex, interacting physical responses that usually combine activation of the 6 brain areas?

Answer 10

Biological Contributions to Emotional Expression - More evidence to support Darwin’s view:
1. Children’s capacities for emotional expression and recognition develop according to a regular timeline (universal), with little influence by experience.
2. Infants who are blind from birth
3. Monozygotic vs dizygotic twins
4. Rhesus monkeys raised in isolation

Environmental Contributions to Emotional Expression - Culture and learning can modify emotional expressions:
1. The presence of other people often influences the intensity of emotional expression.
2. Cultures typically have different display rules, or norms that specify when, where, and how a person should express emotion.
3. Japanese vs American students(did not change viewing alone or in a group)

Biological Correlates of Emotion:
1. Emotional states are accompanied by complex, interacting physical responses that usually combine activation of the autonomic nervous system, the amygdala, the insula, the cingulate cortex, the basal ganglia, and the cerebral cortex.

Question 11

Individual Differences in Emotional Expression and Recognition

1. Individuals are different from one another in their overall ?
2. Individuals also vary in their overall emotional style, ?
3. Kagan’s (1997) foundational research on emotion - behavioral inhibition ?
4. Correct identification of another person’s facial expressions of emotion is critical to ?
5. Twin studies suggest the ability to interpret the emotional expressions of others is heavily ?
6. The ability to read others’ emotions is distorted by several psychological disorders ?
7. Incarcerated murders respond more to?

Answer 11

1. Individuals are different from one another in their overall intensity of emotional expression and their abilities to identify the emotions of others correctly.
2. Individuals also vary in their overall emotional style, or positive or negative emotional tendencies.
3. Kagan’s (1997) foundational research on emotion - behavioral inhibition (if child acts out as child will be shy as an adult - can see this as early as four month old) - infants highly reactive to stimuli are more likely to have anxiety and mood disorders → kids also respond more to smell
   - Incarcerated murders respond more to pleasant and unpleasant
4. Correct identification of another person’s facial expressions of emotion is critical to competent social functioning.
5. Twin studies suggest the ability to interpret the emotional expressions of others is heavily influenced by genetics.
6. The ability to read others’ emotions is distorted by several psychological disorders - anti personality, schizophrenia, autism
7. Incarcerated murders respond more to pleasant and unpleasant

Question 12

Can we spot a liar?

Despite our ability to recognize emotions, we can be ?

Deception, or a false communication that benefits the communicator, along with the ability to detect deception have been shaped by ?

Some people can produce authentic-looking, fake emotional expressions.
– Plants/Primates who deceive will ?
– The Duchenne smile hypothesis is that smiles that ?

Polygraph tests are widely used by both law enforcement and employers despite their empirical unreliability.
– In one study, a panel of experts evaluated polygraph data and declared a ?

In an effort to improve on the unreliable polygraph approach, researchers have focused on the cognitive costs of lying. Lying taxes executive controls in three ways:
1.the truth must be held in ?
2.telling a lie requires ?
3.transitioning in thought between truth and lie requires ?

A normally articulate person stumbles verbally, adding ?

The arousal produced by lying is also reflected in the?
– People who are lying stiffen the?

Constructing a plausible lie takes more time than simply accessing and expressing an ?

An excellent signal of lying is a ?
– Truthful people include 20 to 30% more?

Asking a person to tell a story backwards in time can also ?

fMRIs may be used in the future to detect changes in brain activation ?

Ethical issues - brain scan to read mind is invasion of ?

Answer 12

Despite our ability to recognize emotions, we can be deceived by liars.

Deception, or a false communication that benefits the communicator, along with the ability to detect deception have been shaped by natural selection.

Some people can produce authentic-looking, fake emotional expressions.
– Plants/Primates who deceive will pass it down like camouflage
– The Duchenne smile hypothesis is that smiles that include eye constriction (AU6) are the product of genuine positive emotion, whereas smiles that do not are either falsified or related to negative emotion

Polygraph tests are widely used by both law enforcement and employers despite their empirical unreliability.
– In one study, a panel of experts evaluated polygraph data and declared a third of the innocent people to be guilty, whereas a quarter of the guilty were deemed to be innocent.

In an effort to improve on the unreliable polygraph approach, researchers have focused on the cognitive costs of lying. Lying taxes executive controls in three ways:
1.the truth must be held in working memory
2.telling a lie requires response inhibition to avoid telling the truth
3.transitioning in thought between truth and lie requires task switching

A normally articulate person stumbles verbally, adding um’s and uh’s as they struggle to assemble a plausible lie.

The arousal produced by lying is also reflected in the body and face like lacking eye contact or swinging hands/feet
– People who are lying stiffen the head and upper body, nod the head less frequently, and use fewer gestures than when telling the truth.

Constructing a plausible lie takes more time than simply accessing and expressing an accurate memory.

An excellent signal of lying is a relative lack of detail in a story.
– Truthful people include 20 to 30% more detail in a story compared to liars.

Asking a person to tell a story backwards in time can also illuminate lying.

fMRIs may be used in the future to detect changes in brain activation during lying.

Ethical issues - brain scan to read mind is invasion of privacy or bodily autonomy

Question 13

The Autonomic Nervous System

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) participates in the general?

Autonomic responses associated with negative emotions were ?

However, identifying differences in autonomic correlates between two ?

Emotions correlate with arousal of the?

However, no emotion is associated with a distinctive ?
– For example, heart rate and breathing rate increase with the intensity of an emotion, but they do not ?

Answer 13

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) participates in the general arousal associated with emotional states.

Autonomic responses associated with negative emotions were stronger than those associated with positive emotions.

However, identifying differences in autonomic correlates between two positive states (such as happiness and hope) or between two negative states (such as anger and fear) is far more difficult.

Emotions correlate with arousal of the autonomic nervous system.

However, no emotion is associated with a distinctive pattern of autonomic activity.
– For example, heart rate and breathing rate increase with the intensity of an emotion, but they do not distinguish fear from anger.

Question 14

The Amygdala and the Insula

The amygdala and the insula are associated with the identification of WHAT TWO?

Klüver-Bucy syndrome: collection of symptoms including ?
Monkey initiate born to fear fire and snakes but with damage ?

klüver-bucy syndrome which
Behavioral: ?
Cognitive: ?
Emotional: ?
Dietary: ?

Patient SM amygdala were destroyed by a condition known as Urbach-Wiethe disease - no fear response and only event to trigger her fear when she thought ?
and never made eye contact only look at ?Fear can be viewed in?

Damage to the amygdala affects the processing of ?

Toxoplasma gondii – ?

Individual differences in anxiety correlate with ?

On the average, people who show a stronger startle response to loud noises tend to favor ?

The behavior of individuals with damage to the insula suggests this area participates in making the distinction between ?

Positive feelings are associated with activity in the rostral areas of the ?

Participants were asked to rate photos on a scale from very pleasant to very unpleasant while indicating how arousing each photo was.
– Participants with damage to the insula rated the photos?
– Participants with damage to the amygdala ?
– Results suggest that the ?

Answer 14

The amygdala and the insula are associated with the identification of emotional stimuli and the arousal resulting from that identification.

Klüver-Bucy syndrome: collection of symptoms including oral exploration and sexual activity(hypersexuality) bc damage to bilateral temporal lobe and amygdala. Monkey initiate born to fear fire and snakes but with damage have no fear response so walk up to snakes. - reduced emotional response - fear conditioning does not work when damage to amygdala

klüver-bucy syndrome which
Behavioral: Hyperorality, hypersexuality, hypermetamorphosis, placidity, and docility
Cognitive: Visual agnosia, amnesia, and dementia
Emotional: Loss of normal fear and anger responses, indifference, and other emotional changes
Dietary: Changes in dietary habits, compulsive eating, binge eating and purging, and eating inedible objects Sleep: Insomnia, narcolepsy, night terrors, and restless legs

Patient SM amygdala were destroyed by a condition known as Urbach-Wiethe disease - no fear response and only event to trigger her fear when she thought she was literally dying by gas chamber and never made eye contact only look at people’s mouths but could recognize fearful expression she just didn’t experience it. Fear can be viewed in the eyes and not other emotions can be so easily understood from eyes like happiness is mostly with a mouth. – When researchers asked SM to look at the eyes, she recognized fearful expressions.

Damage to the amygdala affects the processing of faces.

Toxoplasma gondii – Toxin damages the rat’s amygdala.

Individual differences in anxiety correlate with amygdala activity. Anxiety depends on more than just the amygdala.

On the average, people who show a stronger startle response to loud noises tend to favor greater reliance on military and police powers.

The behavior of individuals with damage to the insula suggests this area participates in making the distinction between positive and negative stimuli.

Positive feelings are associated with activity in the rostral areas of the insula and negative feelings with the more caudal areas.

Participants were asked to rate photos on a scale from very pleasant to very unpleasant while indicating how arousing each photo was.
– Participants with damage to the insula rated the photos as more neutral and as less arousing than control participants did.
– Participants with damage to the amygdala did not show differences in their ratings of positivity and negativity compared to controls, but they showed much less arousal in response to negative photos.
– Results suggest that the amygdala initiates arousal, especially in response to negative stimuli, while the insula helps us discriminate between positive and negative stimuli.

Question 15

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) participates in the brain’s ?
– Contributes to conscious, cognitive appraisals of threat ?

The basal ganglia participate in ?
– Strokes that damage the basal ganglia produce an overall decrease in ?
– Recognizing expressions of ?

Answer 15

The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) participates in the brain’s pain matrix, which processes information about physical pain - physical pain more likely to be in emotional pain
– Contributes to conscious, cognitive appraisals of threat (that’s a frightening snake, but it’s in a terrarium) compared to less conscious signals arising from the amygdala.

The basal ganglia participate in voluntary movement, including the coordination of movement in response to emotional stimuli - disgust
– Strokes that damage the basal ganglia produce an overall decrease in the experience of emotional intensity.
– Recognizing expressions of disgust in Parkinson’s or Huntington’s patients.

Question 16

The Cerebral Cortex

When humans experience cortical damage, particularly in the frontal lobes?

Frontal lobe damage is associated with a reduction in ?

Happily married women were given moderately painful shocks to their ankles. Husband hand, male stranger, and no body. On various trials, they held the hand of their husband, a man they did not know, or no one.
- Holding the husband’s hand ?

A man with prefrontal cortex damage expressed ?

Damage to parts of the prefrontal cortex blunts emotions, except for an occasional?
– Impairs ?
– Leads to impulsive ?
– One-shot Dictator game and moral dilemma decisions - ?

Frontal Lobotomy - ?

The right hemisphere plays a greater role than the left in ?

Answer 16

When humans experience cortical damage, particularly in the frontal lobes, emotional disturbance often results.

Frontal lobe damage is associated with a reduction in emotional feelings, especially those of fear and anxiety - Phineas Gage had rod in frontal lobe

Happily married women were given moderately painful shocks to their ankles. Husband hand, male stranger, and no body. On various trials, they held the hand of their husband, a man they did not know, or no one.
- Holding the husband’s hand reduced the response most as indicated by fMRI in several brain areas, including the prefrontal cortex which reduced stress

A man with prefrontal cortex damage expressed almost no emotions.

Damage to parts of the prefrontal cortex blunts emotions, except for an occasional outburst of anger.
– Impairs decision-making
– Leads to impulsive decision-making without pausing to consider consequences - executive functions
– One-shot Dictator game and moral dilemma decisions - frontal lobe damage don’t spilt or give money keep it bc don’t feel not guilt or have trust and will make utilitarian decision quickly and clammy kill the 1 to safe the 5 → most people split it evenly

Frontal Lobotomy - damage or detach frontal lobe from the rest of the brain - ice pick surgery

The right hemisphere plays a greater role than the left in processing emotion for most people.

Question 17

Patterns of Activation and Emotion: We do not have ?

Emotion Regulation:
– To control the experience and expression of emotion, we use ?
– People exert both conscious and unconscious control over ?
– You can use selective attention to focus away ?
– In distraction, we switch our focus from the emotional stimulus to ?
– In reappraisal, the meaning of a?
– Finally, we can suppress the display ?

Answer 17

Patterns of Activation and Emotion: We do not have “happy centers” and “sadness centers” in the brain - no evidence of localization

Emotion Regulation:
– To control the experience and expression of emotion, we use emotion regulation.
– People exert both conscious and unconscious control over their emotional state using several strategies.
– You can use selective attention to focus away from an emotional stimulus.
– In distraction, we switch our focus from the emotional stimulus to internal thoughts.
– In reappraisal, the meaning of a stimulus is changed. - an assessment of something or someone again or in a different way.
– Finally, we can suppress the display of emotion.

Question 18

Neuropsychology is a specialty field within clinical psychology that seeks to understand and treat patients with cognitive impairments resulting from: which 3?

Neuropsychologists are expected to understand a broad range of relationships between ?

Neuropsychology is carried out in the US by ?

Neuropsychological Assessment:
– Goal is to develop an informed ?
— Choice of methods depends on ?

Standardized tests:
– Comparisons with ?
– Comparisons with abilities ?
– BLANK tests
– BLANK battery

Neurocognitive Disorders:
– Despite the protection that the WHICH 3? provide to the brain, damage can still occur.
– Neurocognitive disorders are described in the?
– Neurocognitive disorders are diagnosed when a patient experiences a decline in functioning in one or more of the following cognitive domains after a known challenge to the nervous system: which 5?

Answer 18

Neuropsychology is a specialty field within clinical psychology that seeks to understand and treat patients with cognitive impairments resulting from: Aging, Disease, and Injury

Neuropsychologists are expected to understand a broad range of relationships between the nervous system and behavior.

Neuropsychology is carried out in the US by licensed doctoral-level clinical psychologists who complete specialized training.

Neuropsychological Assessment:
– Goal is to develop an informed treatment plan.
— Choice of methods depends on the issues involved.

Standardized tests:
– Comparisons with population
– Comparisons with abilities unaffected by condition
– IQ tests
– Halstead-Reitan battery

Neurocognitive Disorders:
– Despite the protection that the skull bones, cerebrospinal fluid, and blood–brain barrier provide to the brain, damage can still occur.
– Neurocognitive disorders are described in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5).
– Neurocognitive disorders are diagnosed when a patient experiences a decline in functioning in one or more of the following cognitive domains after a known challenge to the nervous system: Attention, Executive function, Learning and memory, Perception and movement, and Social cognition

Question 19

Alzheimer’s Disease

Alzheimer’s disease is one of several ?

Other forms of dementia include which 2?

Probable Alzheimer’s disease is diagnosed based on:
- Genetic?
- Clear evidence of ?
- A steady, gradual loss of ?

Diagnostic methods: which 3?

Alzheimer’s disease risk increases with ?

Atrophy of the cerebral cortex and neurodegeneration: which 2?

Treatments:
– Experimental antibodies targeting?
– Approved treatments slow down, but do not ?
– Increasing seafood and ?
– Acetylcholinesterase ?
– Use of antipsychotics is ?

Answer 19

Alzheimer’s disease is one of several degenerative conditions associated with aging that results in dementia.

Other forms of dementia include frontotemporal lobar degeneration and Lewy body disease.

Probable Alzheimer’s disease is diagnosed based on:
- Genetic testing or family history
- Clear evidence of learning and memory impairments
- A steady, gradual loss of cognitive function without plateaus

Diagnostic methods:
- Autopsy
- Biomarkers in CSF and blood
- PET and MRI scanning

Alzheimer’s disease risk increases with age.

Atrophy of the cerebral cortex and neurodegeneration:
- Neurofibrillary tangles and tau proteins
- Beta amyloid and amyloid plaques

Treatments:
– Experimental antibodies targeting beta amyloid clear plaques
– Approved treatments slow down, but do not reverse the course of the disease
– Increasing seafood and omega-3 fatty acid intake
– Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors
– Use of antipsychotics is associated with earlier death

Question 20

Vascular Disease (Stroke)

Neurons are totally dependent on the ?

A stroke occurs when the brain’s blood supply is interrupted by either a ?

Characteristics of types of stroke:
– Hemorrhage 20% - cause: ? - outcomes: ?
– Ischemic 80% - cause: ? - outcomes: ?

A stroke occurs when the brain’s blood supply is interrupted by either ?

Risk factors include ?

Cerebral hemorrhage: ?

The sudden blockage of a blood vessel:
– Results in ?
– Infarct ?
– Transient ?
– Thrombosis vs. embolism: ?

Neuronal cell death occurs immediately after a stroke, but prompt medical attention can save the neurons and glia in the ?
- Use of drugs that reduce ?
- Mechanical devices inserted into ?
- Histone ?
- Surgery
- Physical activity

Answer 20

Neurons are totally dependent on the blood supply for oxygen.

A stroke occurs when the brain’s blood supply is interrupted by either a cerebral hemorrhage or a blockage of a blood vessel.

Characteristics of types of stroke:
– Hemorrhage 20% - cause: high BP or vascular abnormalities - outcomes: frequently fatal
– Ischemic 80% - cause: arteriosclerosis or blood clots - outcomes: infarct of varying size (a tissue area that has been damaged due to a lack of blood supply), changes in consciousness, sensation, and movement

A stroke occurs when the brain’s blood supply is interrupted by either hemorrhage (bleeding) or by the sudden blockage of a blood vessel.

Risk factors include age, hypertension (high blood pressure), smoking, diabetes, high cholesterol levels, obesity, and the use of alcohol, cocaine, amphetamines, heroin, and other drugs.

Cerebral hemorrhage: Aneurysms and Blood diseases or exposure to toxic chemicals

The sudden blockage of a blood vessel:
– Results in ischemia (low oxygen levels)
– Infarct (area of dead neural tissue)
– Transient ischemic attacks (TIA)
– Thrombosis vs. embolism: where a blood clot forms and travels in the body
(Thrombosis: A blood clot, or thrombus, forms and remains in a blood vessel, can occur in veins, arteries, or the heart)
(Embolism: A blood clot, or embolus, breaks free from a thrombus and travels to another location in the body)

Neuronal cell death occurs immediately after a stroke, but prompt medical attention can save the neurons and glia in the penumbra (area that surrounds an area of damaged tissue, like the area around a stroke where cells are still potentially salvageable if blood flow is restored quickly)
- Use of drugs that reduce blood clotting
- Mechanical devices inserted into blood vessels
- Histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors
- Surgery
- Physical activity

Question 21

Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are the result of ?

Leading causes of TBI in the US are ?

Increasing numbers of military personnel and civilians in war zones have experienced TBI because of ?

Types of TBI:

Open head injuries:
- Pene?
- Worst consequences when injury affects:
which areas of brain?

Closed head injuries (??): Blow to the ?
– Coup VS countercoup?
– Subdural hematoma - ? similar to?
– White matter damage

Military TBI:
– Can combine ?
Can differ from civilian TBI:
– Severe ?
– Disruption of ?
– Damage to ?

Outcomes of TBI:
- Most individuals recover from concussion in a ?
- Neurocognitive disorder due to traumatic brain injury - set of symptoms that follow for ? long lasting symptoms like ?
- Repeated TBI is especially damaging:
Dementia pugilistica ? : Interactions with ? allele
Is a form of TBI often associated with ?

Treatments for TBI vary widely:
- Medications that inhibit ?
- Medications that enhance ?
- Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors help with?
- Chronic TBI treated by enhancing ?
- Patient and family education
- Virtual reality

Answer 21

Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are the result of physical damage to the brain.

Leading causes of TBI in the US are traffic accidents, gunshot wounds, and falls.

Increasing numbers of military personnel and civilians in war zones have experienced TBI because of blast injuries.

Types of TBI:

Open head injuries:
- Penetration of skull
- Worst consequences when injury affects:
Ventricles, Both hemispheres bilateral, Multiple lobes of the brain

Closed head injuries (concussions): Blow to the head
– Coup(area of brain damage is the site), countercoup(area occurs on the opposite side of the site of damage): Coup injuries occur at the site of impact when the head strikes an object, causing damage to the brain tissue directly beneath the point of impact. Contrecoup injuries occur on the opposite side of the brain from the impact site.
– Subdural hematoma - bruise of brain
occurs when a blood vessel in the space between the skull and the brain (the subdural space) is damaged.
similar to a bruise in that both involve bleeding from damaged blood vessels
– White matter damage

Military TBI:
– Can combine open and closed injuries
Can differ from civilian TBI:
– Severe swelling
– Disruption of blood-brain barrier
– Damage to blood supply

Outcomes of TBI:
- Most individuals recover from concussion in a few weeks
- Neurocognitive disorder due to traumatic brain injury - set of symptoms that follow for days up to years long lasting symptoms like anxiety, depression, PTSD, cognitive deficits
- Repeated TBI is especially damaging:
Dementia pugilistica - boxers syndrome TBI: Interactions with e4 allele
Is a form of TBI often associated with the repeated blows to the head in boxing. Boxers carrying the E4 variant of the APOE gene may be more vulnerable to dementia pugilistica

Treatments for TBI vary widely:
- Medications that inhibit glutamate (excitatory)
- Medications that enhance dopamine activity
- Norepinephrine reuptake inhibitors help with improving cognitive performance and attention abilities
- Chronic TBI treated by enhancing dopamine activity produces short-term results, but long-term effects are unknown. Norepinephrine reuptake blockers may be useful for improving cognitive performance and attention abilities
- Patient and family education
- Virtual reality

Question 22

Substance/Medication-Induced Neurocognitive Disorder

Results from drug use that produces symptoms of ?

Likely drugs: 9 things

Individuals who begin abstinence prior to age ?

Several types of drugs produce specific effects that are capable of producing neurocognitive deficits.

Methamphetamine:
- Increases risk of ?
- Damages ?

Alcohol:
- Nutritional ?
- Korsakoff syndrome: ?
- Confabulation: is a ?

Answer 22

Results from drug use that produces symptoms of neurocognitive disorder outside of intoxication and withdrawal.

Likely drugs: Alcohol, cocaine, methamphetamine, opioids, phencyclidine (PCP), sedatives, hypnotics, antianxiety drugs, and solvents.

Individuals who begin abstinence prior to age 50 years recover more effectively.

Several types of drugs produce specific effects that are capable of producing neurocognitive deficits.

Methamphetamine:
- Increases risk of cardiovascular accidents
- Damages blood-brain barrier

Alcohol:
- Nutritional deficits
- Korsakoff syndrome: a chronic memory disorder that damages the brain and spinal cord, and is often associated with alcoholism and they usually lie not to device but because they have memory deficits
- Confabulation: is a neuropsychiatric disorder wherein a patient generates a false memory without the intention of deceit.

Question 23

HIV-Associated Neurocognitive Disorder (HAND)

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) - Neurological symptoms result directly or indirectly from ?

The initial symptoms are relatively mild: which 6?

Later symptoms: which 5?

HIV does not target neurons; therefore, the virus causes cell death indirectly – The effect of?

Effects microglia, and what other 3?

Contemporary WHAT treatments

Too much WHAT kills cell

Answer 23

HIV-associated neurocognitive disorder (HAND) - Neurological symptoms result directly or indirectly from HIV or other opportunistic infections.

The initial symptoms are relatively mild: difficulty concentrating, forgetfulness, decreased work productivity, low sex drive, social withdrawal, general apathy.

Later symptoms: imbalance, clumsiness, weakness, memory loss and language impairment.

HIV does not target neurons; therefore, the virus causes cell death indirectly – The effect of HIV on neuronal death is indirect, in that HIV does not target neurons

Effects microglia, astrocytes, endothelial cells and causes apoptosis

Contemporary antiretroviral treatments

Too much Ca kills cell

Question 24

Prion Diseases

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs): produce clustered WHAT resulting in WHAT.

Symptoms of TSEs include WHICH 3?

The causal factor in TSEs is a single
WHAT? The normal and abnormal versions of a prion are designated as WHICH TWO?

Scrapie was first identified in ?

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or mad-cow disease: is a form of?

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD): is a human ?

Kuru: is a human ?

Symptom Progression: WHICH 4?

Proposal that TSEs were caused by a type of ?

The prion protein can exist in two forms, depending on how it’s folded:
- The normal version became known as ?
- The abnormal version involved in scrapie, the sheep version of TSE, became known as ? lacks ?

Answer 24

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs): produce clustered neural cell death resulting in the brain having a sponge like appearance.

Symptoms of TSEs include psychological disturbances, progressive loss of cognitive function, and finally death.

The causal factor in TSEs is a single abnormal protein known as a prion. The normal and abnormal versions of a prion are designated as PrPc (prion protein cellular) and PrPsc (prion protein scrapie), respectively.

Scrapie was first identified in sheep and goats in 18th century England. The
condition was not spread to people who consumed the meat of infected
animals

Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) or mad-cow disease: is a form of TSE that affects cattle; also known as mad-cow disease.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD): is a human TSE, which results from either genetics or contamination through medical procedures

Kuru: is a human TSE that results from cannibalism.

Fatal familial insomnia

Symptom Progression: psychological disturbances, loss of cognitive function, motor disturbances, death

Proposal that TSEs were caused by a type of infectious agent, a single protein, prion.

The prion protein can exist in two forms, depending on how it’s folded:
- The normal version became known as PrPC (prion protein cellular).
- The abnormal version involved in scrapie, the sheep version of TSE, became known as PrPSC (prion protein scrapie), lacks nucleus acid and cause TSE and misfolds the normal - proteins to become abnormal
Prion proteins have normal and abnormal forms.

Question 25

Brain Tumors

Tumors: ?

Primary tumors:
- R?
- Causes ?

Secondary tumors:
- Arise from ?
- Most common type of tumor until ?

Malignant tumors lack ?

In the process known as metastasis, malignant ?

Benign tumors are ?

Tumors are identified according to ?

Symptoms of brain tumors:
- Pressure ?
- 6 typical symptoms ?
- Specific disruptions related to the location of the tumor like?

Types of tumors:
- Gliomas (>70% of brain tumors): ?
- Meningiomas: ?

Classification of tumors ranges from: Grade I to?

Treatment for tumors:
- Surgical ?
- Whole ?
- (SRS) ?
- Ultrasound ?
- Chemotherapy limited by ?
- Thalidomide to starve ?
- Experimental delivery of stem cells with ?

Answer 25

Tumors: Independent growths of new tissue that lack purpose.

Primary tumors:
- Rare
- Causes unknown, but radiation is a risk factor like MRI

Secondary tumors:
- Arise from glial cells, meninges(skin, bone, meninges, brain), and ependymal cells
- Most common type of tumor until age 19 - uterus is number one to give rise to tumors and 2nd is brain and not neurons bc they don’t replace it so it is mengies or glial cells

Malignant tumors lack distinct boundaries and are very likely to recur following surgical removal.

In the process known as metastasis, malignant tumors shed cells, which travel to other sites of the body and start new tumors.

Benign tumors are contained within their own membrane, are unlikely to recur following removal, and do not metastasize.

Tumors are identified according to the tissue from which they arise.

Symptoms of brain tumors:
- Pressure in the skull - not extra space
- Headache, vomiting, double vision, reduced heart rate, reduced alertness, and seizures
- Specific disruptions related to the location of the tumor like frontal lobe causes memory issues

Types of tumors:
- Gliomas (>70% of brain tumors): develop in glial cells. A fast-growing, cancerous tumor that originates from glial cells in the spinal cord.
- Meningiomas: are typically encapsulated and generally do not recur following surgery. A slow-growing, usually benign tumor that originates from the meninges.

Classification of tumors ranges from: Grade I (least serious) to Grade IV
(most serious, often rapidly fatal)

Treatment for tumors:
- Surgical removal
- Whole brain radiation
- Stereotaxic radiosurgery (SRS)
- Ultrasound therapy
- Chemotherapy limited by BBB
- Thalidomide to starve tumors of blood supply
- Experimental delivery of stem cells with anticancer genes

Question 26

Infections
- Certain infections circumvent the protection surrounding the ?
- The neurocognitive consequences of such invasions are ?

Parasites
- A variety of parasitic infections can affect the central nervous system, but the most common of these is?
- Results from infection with the eggs of ? usually through the ingestion of ?
- Produces ?

Answer 26

Infections
- Certain infections circumvent the protection surrounding the brain and nervous system.
- The neurocognitive consequences of such invasions are dramatic, and many of these disorders are life threatening.

Parasites
- A variety of parasitic infections can affect the central nervous system, but the most common of these is neurocysticercosis (larval immature stage of a pork tapeworm)
- Results from infection with the eggs of the pork tapeworm, Taenia solium, usually through the ingestion of fecal material from a symptom-free tapeworm carrier in the household.
- Produces partial seizures

Question 27

Bacterial, Viral, and Fungal Infections

Many kinds of bacteria, viruses, and fungi can infect the ?

Encephalitis is an inflammation of the ?

Symptoms range from mild to which 4?

Some experience permanent impairments to which 5?

Zika virus is a ?

Can be transmitted from pregnant women to their ?

Symptoms for most people are WHAT; the virus has been linked to WHAT?

Herpes simplex, the class of viruses responsible for ? produces one of the ?

If a person has a weakened immune system, the herpes virus can ?

Answer 27

Many kinds of bacteria, viruses, and fungi can infect the brain and meninges.

Encephalitis is an inflammation of the brain caused by viral infection.

Symptoms range from mild to convulsions, delirium, coma, and death.

Some experience permanent impairments to memory, speech, muscle coordination, hearing, and vision.

Zika virus is a mosquito-borne virus first identified in Uganda in 1947.

Can be transmitted from pregnant women to their fetuses and through sexual transmission, blood transfusion, and laboratory exposure.

Symptoms for most people are mild; the virus has been linked to microcephaly (a rare birth defect that causes a baby’s head to be smaller than normal for their age and sex).

Herpes simplex, the class of viruses responsible for cold sores and genital herpes, produces one of the most serious and likely fatal versions of secondary encephalitis.

If a person has a weakened immune system, the herpes virus can reactivate and travel to the brain.

Question 28

Meningitis: def?

Produces WHICH symptoms which 6?

Types: WHICH 3? B V F

Bacterial meningitis is caused by ?

WHICH 4 can spread the bacteria?

Although rare, these infections are considered a ?

Those who recover might still experience WHICH 2?

Viral meningitis is the most common form of meningitis, but it is generally considered?

Symptoms are similar to those of the?
WHICH 3? HOW LONG LAST?

Cases of fungal meningitis are ?

Normally, they occur only when a person’s immune system has been ?

These cases are ?

Answer 28

Meningitis: inflammation of meninges

Produces flu like symptoms, including high temperature, vomiting, diarrhea, and joint and muscle pains.

Types:
- Bacterial meningitis
- Viral meningitis: most common, least dangerous
- Fungal meningitis is rare

Bacterial meningitis is caused by several common classes of bacteria.

Prolonged close contact, coughing, sneezing, and kissing can spread the bacteria.

Although rare, these infections are considered a medical emergency, with fatality rates between 17 -20%.

Those who recover might still experience deafness or brain injury

Viral meningitis is the most common form of meningitis, but it is generally considered the least dangerous type.

Symptoms are similar to those of the bacterial forms of the disease.
Headaches, fatigue, and depression can last for weeks or even months.

Cases of fungal meningitis are exceedingly rare.

Normally, they occur only when a person’s immune system has been seriously impaired.

These cases are slow to develop, hard to diagnose, and difficult to treat.

Question 29

Epilepsy: When patients experience repeated, unprovoked?

Seizures vary widely in terms of their WHAT 3?

Types of Seizures:
- Partial vs ?
- Simple vs ?
- Tonic-clonic vs ?

Treatment for Epilepsy:
- Medications used to treat epilepsy are known as ?
- Many AEDs act as ?although others target?
- If medications are not effective, ?

Partial seizures originate in an ?

Aura: A feeling experienced at ?
– Some are preceded by an aura, or premonition of ?
– In some cases, the aura involves ?

Further divided into simple and ?

Simple partial seizures cause ?
– These seizures are not accompanied by changes in ?

Jacksonian seizure or Jacksonian march: ?

Complex partial seizures normally begin in the ?
– During the seizure, the patient is likely to be very ?
– In some cases, the person has the sense that he or she is reexperiencing a ?
– In others, there is a sense that the environment is ?

Generalized seizures do not appear to have a focus or clear ?
– Are typically not accompanied by an ?
– Result from the activation of circuits connecting the ?

The two major categories of generalized seizure are the ?

Tonic-clonic seizures begin with a tonic phase, lasting ?? and characterized by ??

Then experience the clonic phase, which lasts about ?? where the body experiences??

Cycling of tonic and clonic phases is followed by a period of?

Absence seizures are much less BLANK than tonic-clonic seizures?
– For about 10 seconds, the person loses consciousness, and motor?
– Patients are unaware of their ?
– Absence seizures are accompanied by a highly characteristic EEG pattern known as??

EEG Recordings during?

Answer 29

Epilepsy: When patients experience repeated, unprovoked seizures, they are diagnosed with epilepsy.

Seizures vary widely in terms of their causes, duration, and symptoms.

Partial - Simple vs complex
Generalized - Tonic-clonic(grand mal) vs absence(petit mal)

Types of Seizures:
- Partial vs generalized seizures
- Simple vs complex
- Tonic-clonic vs absence

Treatment for Epilepsy:
- Medications used to treat epilepsy are known as antiepileptic drugs, or AEDs.
- Many AEDs act as GABA agonists, although others target sodium and calcium channels.
- If medications are not effective, surgery might be indicated.

Partial seizures originate in an identifiable part of the brain (the focus or focal area) and then spread outward.

Aura: A feeling experienced at the beginning of a neurological condition, such as a migraine or epileptic seizure. This can include seeing colored lights, hearing voices, or feeling numbness or crawling.
– Some are preceded by an aura, or premonition of the impending seizure.
– In some cases, the aura involves sensory distortions, whereas in others, it is simply the sense that a seizure will occur soon.

Further divided into simple and complex seizures.

Simple partial seizures cause movements or sensations appropriate to the location of the starting point, or focus, of the seizure activity.
– These seizures are not accompanied by changes in consciousness.

Jacksonian seizure or Jacksonian march: a type of focal seizure where abnormal electrical activity in the brain causes tingling or twitching sensations that start in a small area of the body and gradually spread to nearby muscle groups.

Complex partial seizures normally begin in the temporal lobes and are associated with alterations in consciousness.
– During the seizure, the patient is likely to be very confused and will often have no memory of the seizure.
– In some cases, the person has the sense that he or she is reexperiencing a past event.
– In others, there is a sense that the environment is oddly unknown or foreign

Generalized seizures do not appear to have a focus or clear point of origin and affect both sides of the brain symmetrically.
– Are typically not accompanied by an aura.
– Result from the activation of circuits connecting the thalamus with the cortex.

The two major categories of generalized seizure are the tonic-clonic (grand mal) and absence (petit mal) seizures.

Tonic-clonic seizures begin with a tonic phase, lasting several seconds and characterized by loss of consciousness, cessation of breathing, and intense muscular contraction.

Then experience the clonic phase, which lasts about one minute where the body experiences violent, rhythmic contractions that often result in broken bones or other physical injuries.

Cycling of tonic and clonic phases is followed by a period of coma, lasting about five minutes.

Absence seizures are much less violent than tonic-clonic seizures.
– For about 10 seconds, the person loses consciousness, and motor movements are limited to blinking, head turns, and eye movements.
– Patients are unaware of their surroundings during the seizure.
– Absence seizures are accompanied by a highly characteristic EEG pattern known as a “3/sec spike and wave”.

EEG Recordings during generalized seizures

Question 30

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune condition:
– Immune system attacks the ?
– Demyelination of?
– Affects white ?

Possible causes:
– Modest ?
– Exposure to ?
– Lack of vitamin ?

Answer 30

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune condition:
– Immune system attacks the oligodendrocytes
– Demyelination of axons
– Affects white matter in different locations

Possible causes:
– Modest heritability
– Exposure to viruses (e.g., Epstein-Barr)
– Lack of vitamin D due to lack of sunlight

Question 31

Migraine

Symptoms of WHICH 3 lasting FOR HOW LONG?

Migraine generator located in brainstem:
– WHICH system
– WHICH GENE
– Produces increased WHAT

Treatments:
– Triptans prevent release of WHAT
– WHICH injections
– Behavioral adjustments

Answer 31

Symptoms of excruciating head pain, nausea, and vomiting for 4–72 hours.

Migraine generator located in brainstem:
– Trigeminovascular system
– Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)
– Produces increased blood flow and pain

Treatments:
– Triptans prevent release of CGRP
– Botox injections
– Behavioral adjustments

Question 32

Recovery and Treatment in Neurocognitive Disorders: Although we must conclude that central nervous system damage is ?

Plasticity and Recovery; Recovery from brain damage can occur in two general ways:

1. Reactive neuroplasticity:
   – The development of new ?
   – Takes place within ?
2. Experience-dependent neuroplasticity:
   – Changes due to ?
   — Depends on growth and?
   – Logical ?
   – Timeline can span ?

Kennard Principle:
– Recovery from brain damage is related to ?
– Younger brains reorganize more ?
– Applies to language functions but not ?

Language recovery is more extensive than other ?

Answer 32

Recovery and Treatment in Neurocognitive Disorders: Although we must conclude that central nervous system damage is permanent given current technology and medical practices, recovery of behavioral function can occur in cases of neurocognitive disorder.

Plasticity and Recovery; Recovery from brain damage can occur in two general ways:

1. Reactive neuroplasticity:
   – The development of new neurons and the growth of axons, dendrites, and new synapses.
   – Takes place within days or weeks
2. Experience-dependent neuroplasticity:
   – Changes due to learning
   — Depends on growth and strengthening of synapses
   – Logical target of rehabilitation
   – Timeline can span many years

Kennard Principle:
– Recovery from brain damage is related to developmental stage
– Younger brains reorganize more effectively than older brains
– Applies to language functions but not all cognitive functions

Language recovery is more extensive than other cognitive processes.

Question 33

Rehabilitation for Neurocognitive Disorders

Rehabilitation means “to ????”.

Three factors to address:
1. Changes to ?
2. ? changes
3. ? correlates

Methods for improving cognitive function:
– Cognitive (top down) approach: ?
– Functional approach: ?

Virtual reality (VR) therapy:
– Patients participate without ?
– “Wii-hab” ?

Answer 33

Rehabilitation means “to restore to good health”.

Three factors to address:
1. Changes to cognitive abilities
2. Emotional changes
3. Physical correlates

Methods for improving cognitive function:
– Cognitive (top down) approach: A cognitive (top-down) approach proposes stressing a particular cognitive
function, such as attention. By practicing good attention, the patient will improve.
– Functional (specific tasks) approach: A functional approach focuses on specific tasks, rather than on cognitive skills.

Virtual reality (VR) therapy:
– Patients participate without expensive staff
– “Wii-hab” (a rehabilitation technique that uses the Nintendo Wii gaming system to help patients with disabilities or neurological conditions practice physical movements, improve balance and coordination, and regain independence)

Question 34

Abnormal Psych to ?

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013) → ?

Mental Disorder: a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s ?

Mental disorders are ?

Answer 34

Abnormal Psych to psychopathology is same

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013) → handbook to diagnose and known terms

Mental Disorder: a syndrome characterized by clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior that reflects a dysfunction in the psychological, biological, or development processes underlying mental functioning

Mental disorders are common

Question 35

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) - 4x ? and see symptoms at 8-10 months most babies look eyes and then mouth but never shifted ?

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by deficits in two behavioral domains:
– Social ?
– Restricted, repetitive patterns of ?

The severity of the observed deficits and the course of the disorder varies ?

ASD diagnoses have increased ?

Rate increases might reflect a genuine rise in the incidence of the disorder, a relaxation of diagnostic criteria, or ?

The causes of ASD remain unknown but Some theories:
– Genetics
– Interaction of genes with environmental factors:
- ? complications
- Increased ?
- Exposure to ?
- Maternal use of ?
- NOT due to ?

Treatment of ASD:
- Usually treated with intensive, early-childhood ?
- Medications to improve core ?
- Research does not support WHICH 2?

Answer 35

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) - 4x boys more than girls and see symptoms at 8-10 months most babies look eyes and then mouth but never shifted back to the eyes of ASD they only look at background and mouth

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by deficits in two behavioral domains:
– Social communication(eyes) and interaction
– Restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests, or activities

The severity of the observed deficits and the course of the disorder varies widely from individual to individual.

ASD diagnoses have increased rapidly in the past few decades.

Rate increases might reflect a genuine rise in the incidence of the disorder, a relaxation of diagnostic criteria, or a combination of both. 1 in 68 now compared to 1 in 3

The causes of ASD remain unknown but Some theories:
– Genetics
– Interaction of genes with environmental factors:
- Perinatal complications
- Increased parental age
- Exposure to infection, pesticides, and nutritional factors
- Maternal use of antidepressants
- NOT due to vaccinations

Treatment of ASD:
- Usually treated with intensive, early-childhood learning experiences provided during most of the child’s waking hours.
- Medications to improve core behavior problems have been largely ineffective.
- Research does not support gluten and casein-free(milk) diets for ASD individuals.

Question 36

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - used to be called ADD and all diagnosed will have diff?

Symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) include WHICH 3?

Can be diagnosed with WHAT alone without which?

impulsivity/hyperactiviy alone without ?

or combined ?

Causes of ADHD:
– Heritability is about ?
– Likely that multiple ?
– Environmental risk factors include which 3?
– Research has focused on genes associated with dopamine transport:
- WHICH 2 brain areas are rich in dopaminergic neurons?
- Traditional medications are ?

Brain Structure and Function in ADHD;
- Pre? cortex?, anterior ? cortex, and their connections. AND ? lobe damage have same symptoms to ADHD
- Smaller volume in ?, basal ?, ? and brain as a whole.
- White ? disruption; network growth
- Brain maturation: ?

Treatment of ADHD
Behavioral therapy
OR Stimulant medication:
- Methylphenidate ? dextroamphetamine, and amphetamine salts ?
- Nonstimulant drugs are available (Strattera) but are associated with ?
- Antipsychotic medications prescribed in spite of their ?

Answer 36

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) - used to be called ADD and all diagnosed will have diff symptoms and likely caused by diet

Symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) include inattentiveness, impulsivity, and hyperactivity.

Can be diagnosed with inattentiveness alone without impulsivity/ hyperactivity,
impulsivity/hyperactivity alone without inattentiveness,

or combined inattentiveness and impulsivity/hyperactiviy

Causes of ADHD:
– Heritability is about 70% or possibly higher.
– Likely that multiple genes are involved.
– Environmental risk factors include lead contamination, low birth weight, and prenatal exposure to tobacco, alcohol, and other drugs.
– Research has focused on genes associated with dopamine transport:
- Basal ganglia and prefrontal cortex are rich in dopaminergic neurons
- Traditional medications are dopamine agonists(support or increase)

Brain Structure and Function in ADHD;
- Prefrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and their connections. AND frontal lobe damage have same symptoms to ADHD
- Smaller volume in amygdala, basal ganglia, hippocampus and brain as a whole.
- White matter disruption; network growth
- Brain maturation: cortical thickening to make connection and then pruning so thinning the unnecessary but those with ADHD have less thinning

Treatment of ADHD
Behavioral therapy
OR Stimulant medication:
- Methylphenidate (Ritalin), dextroamphetamine, and amphetamine salts (Adderall)
- Nonstimulant drugs are available (Strattera) but are associated with increase in suicidal thoughts
- Antipsychotic medications prescribed in spite of their antagonism of dopamine activity

Question 37

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia affects 0.7 percent of the population (60 percent of these are which gender and which age?

A diagnosis of schizophrenia requires at least HOW of the following to be present most of the time during a WHICH period:
- BLANK (unrealistic thoughts)
- BLANK (false perceptions)
- Disorganized BLANK
- Grossly disorganized or catatonic BLANK?
- Negative symptoms ?

Positive symptoms (addition or abnormal)- ?

Negative symptoms(removal or absent)-?

WHICH is harder to treat

Genetic Contributions:
Concordance rates: About WHAT in identical twins and fraternal is WHAT

Candidate genes:
- BLANK activity
- Neurodevelopment
- BLANK activity
- BLANK activity

Schizophrenics have dysfunctional eye movements as seen in antisaccade tasks - ?

Environmental Influences on Schizophrenia; Environmental factors interact with genetic vulnerability:
- Rates are somewhat higher in ?
- Socioeconomic status -?
- Marijuana use
- Prenatal environmental factors

Brain Structure and Function:
- Enlarged BLANK
- Smaller BLANK
- Hypofrontality
- Higher degree of brain symmetry -?
- Adolescent loss of gray matter - ?

Treating Schizophrenia:

Psychosocial rehabilitation

Typical antipsychotic medications: dopamine antagonist for positive – antagonists, such as ? Which causes which side effects?

Atypical antipsychotic medications: reduce negative – (e.g., clozapine, which acts on which systems) can also be effective. ?
– Based on pharmacological evidence, a decrease in ?
– Glutamate and dopamine systems often interact in the brain, and increasing or decreasing ?

Answer 37

Schizophrenia affects 0.7 percent of the population (60 percent of these are male), with most cases diagnosed between the ages of 18 and 25

A diagnosis of schizophrenia requires at least two of the following to be present most of the time during a single one-month period:
- Delusions (unrealistic thoughts)
- Hallucinations (false perceptions)
- Disorganized speech
- Grossly disorganized or catatonic behavior(lack of responding)
- Negative symptoms (diminished emotional expression or avolition - a symptom that describes a lack of motivation and the inability to initiate or engage in goal-directed behaviors)

Positive symptoms(addition or abnormal)- Behaviors that are present that should be absent. Like disorganized speech or strange behavior or hearing voices wernicke area larger. (not naturally occurring, like hallucinations and delusions)

Negative symptoms(removal or absent)- Absent behaviors that should be present. Like normal facial expressions. (normal behaviors that are missing, such as lack of motivation)
Negative is harder to treat

Genetic Contributions:
Concordance rates: About 50% in identical twins and fraternal is 17% or 1/5

Candidate genes:
- Dopamine activity
- Neurodevelopment
- Serotonin activity
- Glutamate activity

Schizophrenics have dysfunctional eye movements as seen in antisaccade tasks - saccade is a voluntary movement. abnormal saccades, rapid eye movements when reading or visually tracking an object.

Environmental Influences on Schizophrenia; Environmental factors interact with genetic vulnerability:
- Rates are somewhat higher in urban environments
- Socioeconomic status - 5% higher in lower so diff is diet or prenatal and postnatal care and health care - air pollution is impact
- Marijuana use
- Prenatal environmental factors

Brain Structure and Function:
- Enlarged ventricles
- Smaller hippocampal volume
- Hypofrontality
- Higher degree of brain symmetry - bilateral language control
- Adolescent loss of gray matter - more through development until pruning so over pruning or not enough synapses in first place leading to thinning of cortex

Treating Schizophrenia:

Psychosocial rehabilitation

Typical antipsychotic medications: dopamine antagonist for positive – antagonists, such as phenothiazines, that block dopamine receptor sites.
Typical antipsychotics are not specific in blocking dopamine receptors in one particular area of the brain and thus may produce serious side effects, including tardive dyskinesia, a chronic disorder characterized by involuntary, jerky movements.

Atypical antipsychotic medications: reduce negative – (e.g., clozapine, which acts on serotonin systems) can also be effective. Atypical antipsychotic medications are more successful than traditional antipsychotics in treating negative symptoms but are not necessarily safer than the older types of drugs
– Based on pharmacological evidence, a decrease in glutamate sensitivity may also be associated with schizophrenia.
– Glutamate and dopamine systems often interact in the brain, and increasing dopamine or decreasing glutamate should result in similar behavioral outcomes

Question 38

Bipolar Disorder - WHAT IS ratio women to men

Bipolar disorder is characterized by at least one lifetime episode of WHAT, which is often preceded or followed by a period of WHAT:
– Elevated, expansive, or ?
– Increased ?
– Inflated ?
– Depression no longer required for ?
– Linked to enhanced ?

Genetics and Bipolar Disorder
– Genes play a significant role in bipolar disorder.
– Concordance rates among identical twins are as high as ?
– Although several candidate genes for bipolar disorder have been identified, the strength of their effects do not support ?

Brain Structure and Function in Bipolar Disorder
– Similar brain structure abnormalities as in schizophrenia:
- Reduced gray ?
- Smaller ?
- Thinner ?
- Thinner ?
- Thicker temporoparietal and?

Biochemistry and Treatment
- Bipolar disorder is related to oxidative stress: ?
– More apoptosis ?
– Higher amounts of ?
– Accelerated aging, similar to?
- Lithium salts produce ?
- Omega-?

Answer 38

Bipolar Disorder - 3:2 ratio women to men

Bipolar disorder is characterized by at least one lifetime episode of mania, which is often preceded or followed by a period of depression:
– Elevated, expansive, or irritable mood
– Increased goal-directed activity or energy
– Inflated self-esteem, decreased need for sleep, high verbal output, distractibility, high-risk activities
– Depression no longer required for a diagnosis
– Linked to enhanced creativity

Genetics and Bipolar Disorder
– Genes play a significant role in bipolar disorder.
– Concordance rates among identical twins are as high as 40 to 70%.
– Although several candidate genes for bipolar disorder have been identified, the strength of their effects do not support genetic testing for vulnerability to bipolar disorder.

Brain Structure and Function in Bipolar Disorder
– Similar brain structure abnormalities as in schizophrenia:
- Reduced gray matter density and cortical thickness
- Smaller white matter volume
- Thinner parahippocampus
- Thinner right orbitofrontal cortex
- Thicker temporoparietal and left superior motor cortices

Biochemistry and Treatment
- Bipolar disorder is related to oxidative stress: (imbalance of free radicals that leads to cell damage)
– More apoptosis programmed cell death
– Higher amounts of DNA damage
– Accelerated aging, similar to dementia
- Lithium salts produce antioxidant effects
- Omega-3 fatty acids

Question 39

Major depressive disorder (MDD): Periods of pervasive sadness that last for at least how long?
- Withdrawal from ?
- Disturbances in WHICH 4?
- Feelings of WHICH 3?

Genetic Contributions:
- Heritability plays a moderate role at about ?
- Candidate genes regulate WHICH 2?
- Mixed results in studies of interactions between the short version of WHICH 2?

Environmental Influences:
- Prenatal events might contribute to ?
- Stress often serves as a ?
– Larger, prolonged release of?

Brain Structure and Function:
- Reduced volumes in the?
- Reduced which lobes ?
- Abnormal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) activity during ?

Correlations between sleep patterns and depressed mood:
– Irregular or missing circadian rhythms rather than?
– Sleep deprivation reduces depression + enter REM after ?

Biochemistry of MDD:
- Abnormalities in monoamine activity, and ?
- Selective serotonin?
- Altered norepinephrine ?
- Larger and more prolonged release of ?
- Reduced WHAT activity

Treatment of MDD:
- Most commonly, antidepressant medication, particularly ?
- WHICH therapy
- Increased aerobic ?
- Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
- Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
- Deep brain stimulation(??

Answer 39

Major depressive disorder (MDD): Periods of pervasive sadness that last for at least two weeks.
- Withdrawal from pleasurable activities
- Disturbances in appetite, energy levels, sleep, and cognition
- Feelings of hopelessness, guilt, worthlessness

Genetic Contributions:
- Heritability plays a moderate role at about 40%.
- Candidate genes regulate serotonin reuptake and circadian rhythms.
- Mixed results in studies of interactions between the short version of serotonin transporter gene and stressful life events.

Environmental Influences:
- Prenatal events might contribute to a vulnerability.
- Stress often serves as a trigger for depressive episodes.
– Larger, prolonged release of cortisol

Brain Structure and Function:
- Reduced volumes in the hippocampus and amygdala.
- Reduced left frontal lobe activity and right parietal lobe activity.
- Abnormal anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) activity during decision making.

Correlations between sleep patterns and depressed mood:
– Irregular or missing circadian rhythms rather than orderly phase advance or delay.
– Sleep deprivation reduces depression + enter REM after 45mins and not 90mins

Biochemistry of MDD:
- Abnormalities in monoamine activity, and serotonin activity.
- Selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) frequently used to treat MDD.
- Altered norepinephrine function is strongly associated with MDD.
- Larger and more prolonged release of cortisol
- Reduced dopamine activity

Treatment of MDD:
- Most commonly, antidepressant medication, particularly SSRIs
- Cognitive-behavioral therapy
- Increased aerobic exercise
- Electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
- Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS)
- Deep brain stimulation(a surgical procedure that uses electrical impulses)

Question 40

Anxiety Disorders

WHICH % of Americans experience one or more anxiety disorders during their lifetimes.

Anxiety disorders take many forms, but all share a strong ?

Twin and adoption studies support a ?

Abnormalities observed in:
- Pathways connecting the ?
-WHICH 3 neurotransmitter systems

Treatments:
- SSRIs, SNRIs and GABA- BLANK (mimics the actions of a NT)
- Cognitive behavioral therapy
- Exposure therapy
- Benzodiazepines- The most commonly used anti-anxiety drugs. Examples: ?

Alcohol alters brain activity in several ways, but the effects on WHICH receptors are responsible for the anti-anxiety and intoxicating effects.

Panic attacks are characterized by ???

Panic disorder is diagnosed when ???

Panic attacks can be induced by administering sodium lactate:
- Decreases central WHAT activity
- Increases respiratory and WHICH responses
- Acts on orexins(BLANK), which mobilize sympathetic nervous system

Treated with antidepressants, cognitive behavioral therapy, or a combination.

Answer 40

30% of Americans experience one or more anxiety disorders during their lifetimes.

Anxiety disorders take many forms, but all share a strong negative emotion arising from the anticipation of danger. More than temporary fear or worry.

Twin and adoption studies support a genetic predisposition for anxiety disorders.

Abnormalities observed in:
- Pathways connecting the brainstem, amygdala, and related subcortical structures and decision-making areas of frontal lobes.
- Norepinephrine, serotonin, and GABA neurotransmitter systems (mimics the actions of a NT)

Treatments:
- SSRIs, SNRIs and GABA-agonists
- Cognitive behavioral therapy
- Exposure therapy
- Benzodiazepines- The most commonly used anti-anxiety drugs. Examples: diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax)

Alcohol alters brain activity in several ways, but the effects on GABA receptors are responsible for the anti-anxiety and intoxicating effects.

Panic attacks are characterized by intense fear and discomfort accompanied by strong sympathetic arousal - people think they are having a heart attack

Panic disorder is diagnosed when repeated panic attacks are followed by at least one month of worrying about having another attack.

Panic attacks can be induced by administering sodium lactate:
- Decreases central GABA activity
- Increases respiratory and autonomic responses
- Acts on orexins(arousal), which mobilize sympathetic nervous system

Treated with antidepressants, cognitive behavioral therapy, or a combination.

Question 41

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): BLANK BLANK BLANK (obsessions) and the need to BLANK BLANK (compulsions).

Germs and disease, fear for ?

Hand washing, checking, counting, touching

Exaggerations of normal ritual?

Causes:
- %? concordance rates for monozygotic twins
- which 4????
- Abnormalities in WHICH circuits: ?

Treated with WHICH 3?

Answer 41

Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD): Repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and the need to carry out repetitive behaviors (compulsions).

Germs and disease, fear for safety, moral concerns

Hand washing, checking, counting, touching

Exaggerations of normal ritual, territoriality, and grooming behaviors

Causes:
- 63–87% concordance rates for monozygotic twins
- Head trauma, encephalitis, seizure disorder, birth complications, streptococcal infection
- Abnormalities in frontalstriatal circuits ( connect frontal lobe regions with the striatum; striatum is a critical component of the motor and reward systems and is largest part of BG)

Treated with antidepressants, behavioral therapy, or deep brain stimulation.

Question 42

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) - amygdala
- Triggered by exposure to?
- Combat, natural disasters, accidents, assaults, abuse

Symptoms:
- Re-experiencing in ?
- Avoidance of ?
- BLANK &BLANK HYPER
- Persistent negative mood and cognitions

PTSD affects between BLANK % of American adults in a given year.

Twice as many WHICH GENDER

Children appear more vulnerable than adults.

WHAT continues to be one of the most common experiences related to the development of PTSD.

Between 8.5 and 14% of combat soldiers serving in Iraq and Afghanistan experienced severe impairment due to PTSD, and up to 31% experienced some impairment.

Answer 42

Posttraumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) - amygdala
- Triggered by exposure to trauma
- Combat, natural disasters, accidents, assaults, abuse

Symptoms:
- Re-experiencing in dreams and waking flashbacks
- Avoidance of stimuli related to trauma
- Hyperarousal &hypervigilance
- Persistent negative mood and cognitions

PTSD affects between 3 to 4% of American adults in a given year.

Twice as many women as men develop PTSD.

Children appear more vulnerable than adults.

Combat continues to be one of the most common experiences related to the development of PTSD.

Between 8.5 and 14% of combat soldiers serving in Iraq and Afghanistan experienced severe impairment due to PTSD, and up to 31% experienced some impairment.

Question 43

Brain Structure and Activity in PTSD

Small WHIHC 2 BRAIN AREAS correlated with PTSD
– High WHAT may reduce hippocampal size
– Alexithymia: ?

Studies on humans and laboratory animals show that severe stress can impair function in the ?

People who have a smaller BLANK tend to rate their experiences as more stressful.

Most PTSD victims have a smaller than average BLANK.

Prolonged stress can harm the BLANK.

Rats exposed to high stress

Veterans with PTSD:
– Higher activity in the 3 BRAIN AREAS
– Lower activity in 2 BRAIN AREAS

Soldiers with initial high levels of BLANK response showed more combat stress.

Researchers first measured their BLANK responses to briefly flashed unpleasant photos, at the time of the soldiers’ induction into the army.
Later they measured the soldiers’ responses to combat stress.

A study compared Vietnam War veterans who suffered injuries that produced various kinds of brain damage.
- Of those whose damage included the BLANK, none suffered PTSD.
- Of those with damage elsewhere in the brain, 40% suffered PTSD.

Apparently, the BLANK, which is so important for emotional processing, is essential for the extreme emotional impact that produces PTSD.

Those with the greatest BLANK response at the start reported the greatest amount of combat stress.

Answer 43

Small hippocampal and anterior cingulate cortex size correlated with PTSD
– High cortisol may reduce hippocampal size
– Alexithymia: Difficulty identifying, labeling, or communicating one’s emotional state.

Studies on humans and laboratory animals show that severe stress can impair function in the hippocampus and sometimes cause shrinkage.

People who have a smaller hippocampus tend to rate their experiences as more stressful.

Most PTSD victims have a smaller than average hippocampus.

Prolonged stress can harm the hippocampus.

Rats exposed to high stress

Veterans with PTSD:
– Higher activity in the amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex
– Lower activity in prefrontal cortex and thalamus

Soldiers with initial high levels of amygdala response showed more combat stress.

Researchers first measured their amygdala responses to briefly flashed unpleasant photos, at the time of the soldiers’ induction into the army.

Later they measured the soldiers’ responses to combat stress.

A study compared Vietnam War veterans who suffered injuries that produced various kinds of brain damage.

Of those whose damage included the amygdala, none suffered PTSD.

Of those with damage elsewhere in the brain, 40% suffered PTSD.

Apparently, the amygdala, which is so important for emotional processing, is essential for the extreme emotional impact that produces PTSD.

Those with the greatest amygdala response at the start reported the greatest amount of combat stress.

Question 44

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD): Pervasive pattern of ????
- Egocentrism and lack of ??
- Manipulative, deceitful, WHICH OTHER 2?
- Irresponsible,, WHICH OTHER 2?

Demographics:
- Gender who is more?
- Between %? of the population
- Often meet criteria for WHICH OTHER 3 disorders?

Psychopathy:
- Lack of WHICH 3?
- Disinhibition, boldness, and meanness
- Not all people with ASPD are psychopaths

Genetics of ASPD:
- WHICH gene and child maltreatment ???
- Genes play a larger role in individuals whose antisocial behavior is steady over the lifespan compared to those who are antisocial only during ????.
- Twin studies show WHICH% heritability for fearless dominance, impulsive antisociality, and callousness.

Brain structure and function in ASPD:
- Lower volume of the ???
- Lower volume and activity in the ???
- Patterns of brain activity distinguish between serial murderers who had or had not experienced ?
- Difficulty perceiving negative emotions in others and in ?

Treatment of ASPD:
- Effective biological treatment approaches for ASPD remain elusive.
- Existing treatment programs for violent offenders are frequently based on learning models that emphasize ???
- These models have less effect on individuals with ??

Answer 44

Antisocial personality disorder (ASPD): Pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others.
- Egocentrism and lack of empathy
- Manipulative, deceitful, callous, hostile
- Irresponsible, impulsive, risk taking

Demographics:
- More men than women
- Between 0.2 and 3.3% of the population
- Often meet criteria for bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, or substance abuse disorders

Psychopathy:
- Lack of guilt, empathy, and normal emotional responses
- Disinhibition, boldness, and meanness
- Not all people with ASPD are psychopaths

Genetics of ASPD:
- MAOA gene and child maltreatment (a gene on the X chromosome that provides instructions for making the enzyme monoamine oxidase A)
- Genes play a larger role in individuals whose antisocial behavior is steady over the lifespan compared to those who are antisocial only during adolescence.
- Twin studies show 46–67% heritability for fearless dominance, impulsive antisociality, and callousness.

Brain structure and function in ASPD:
- Lower volume of the amygdala
- Lower volume and activity in the prefrontal cortex
- Patterns of brain activity distinguish between serial murderers who had or had not experienced child maltreatment
- Difficulty perceiving negative emotions in others and in one’s own physical state

Treatment of ASPD:
- Effective biological treatment approaches for ASPD remain elusive.
- Existing treatment programs for violent offenders are frequently based on learning models that emphasize anger control, social skills, and moral reasoning.
- These models have less effect on individuals with psychopathy.