BIO 300 Exam 2

Question 1

Sex refers to BLANK, while gender refers to BLANKS

The biology of sex interacts with complex environmental influences to produce a what? example?

Gender identity:?

Most people have a gender identity that matches their what? Environment exposed to can shape how?

Answer 1

Sex refers to biological sex - while gender refers to social, learned, and personal aspects of sex.

The biology of sex interacts with complex environmental influences to produce a final phenotype.
Example: Genotype says 6ft tall but phenotype is expression

Gender identity: The sense of being male or female, independent of biological genetic sex or physical appearance. Clown fish nemo example

Most people have a gender identity that matches their external appearance. Environment exposed to can shape how you are with gender but puberty does play a role.

Question 2

The Genetics of Sex: sperm determines?

An individual’s genetic sex begins with sex chromosomes inherited from two parents:
Mother give what?
Father give what?
child xx is?
child xy is?

Sex chromosomal abnormalities occur?

Longitudinal study showed?

Answer 2

The Genetics of Sex: sperm determines gender of child by providing x or y

An individual’s genetic sex begins with sex chromosomes inherited from two parents:
- Mothers provide X chromosome
- Fathers provide either X or a Y
- A child who receives an XX is a female
- A child who receives an XY is a male

Sex chromosomal abnormalities occur in about 1 out of every 426 children.
Most sex chromosome variations produce relatively mild differences, but others are more dramatic.

Longitudinal study (study over many years with the same participants) completed with more than 13,000 newborns with three sex chromosomes instead of the normal two. Despite abnormal chromosomes most children were normal, the ones most affected were females.

Question 3

Turner Syndrome definition?

what 4?

Answer 3

A whole person receives only a single X chromosome and is a genetic female. - only Y can not survive example like color coding gene is on X so more males are colorblind bc they on get one X but females have XX so can use the other gene.

Normal female external genitalia, but ovaries develop abnormally. Most cases ovaries can not produce eggs

Short stature
Webbed neck deformity

Normal intelligence but deficits in spatial relationships and memory

Can identify which parent passed gene bc only getting one gene

Question 4

Klinefelter Syndrome def?

6 what? - require?

Answer 4

Phenotypically male with XXY genotype so male with extra x

Reduced fertility

Require hormone treatment at puberty to promote development of secondary male characteristics which are deep voice, adam’s apple, facile hair and must have hormones to reduce female stuff like breasts

Normal intelligence but social awkwardness

Delayed and reduced verbal skills so mild cognitive impairments

More frequent left-handedness

2 out of every 1,000 males

Question 5

XYY Syndrome - other name?

what 7?

Answer 5

Males with XYY genotype (Jacob syndrome) males who have extra y - males 1 out of every 1,000

Tall, lean, more acne

Mild physical abnormalities of eye, elbow, and chest

Slightly lower IQ

Language difficulties and autism spectrum - autistic

Disorder are common

Fertile, but larger number of sperm with sex chromosome abnormalities

Controversial relationship to antisocial behavior - could be bc most are in low income families - also lot of poverty chromosomes

Question 6

Issues of Gender Assignment and Rearing: XYY Syndrome, Klinefelter Syndrome, Turner Syndrome

Current guidelines:? what five?

Answer 6

Current guidelines:
- Be honest with the person/family.

-Identify gender based on predominant external genital appearance.

• Rear child as consistently as possible but be prepared that the person might later be sexually oriented toward males, females, both, or neither.
• Do not reduce ambiguous clitoris/penis to a normal sized clitoris.
  Impairs erotic sensation.
• When the baby is born they could look one way based on genital but it can change

Question 7

The Development of the Gonads - reproductive structures processes step one

Up until the sixth gestational week, both male and female embryos have?

At about six weeks gestation, a gene on the Y chromosome, known as the WHAT gene, is expressed in male embryos.

Testis-determining factor, the protein encoded by the SRY gene, switches on additional genes that cause the primordial gonads to develop into testes.

In female embryos alternate genes, including WHAT TWO guide the development of the primordial gonad into ovaries.

Chromosomally male mice genetically modified to lack the SRY gene develop ?

Answer 7

Up until the sixth gestational week, both male and female embryos have identical primordial gonads that have the capacity to develop into either ovaries or testes. - first 6 weeks we all have the same parts

At about six weeks gestation, a gene on the Y chromosome, known as the sex-determining region of the Y chromosome (SRY) gene, is expressed in male embryos.

Testis-determining factor, the protein encoded by the SRY gene, switches on additional genes that cause the primordial gonads to develop into testes.

In female embryos alternate genes, including Wnt4 (located on Chromosome 1) and DAX1 (located on the X chromosome) guide the development of the primordial gonad into ovaries.

Chromosomally male mice genetically modified to lack the SRY gene develop ovaries, whereas female mice in which the SRY gene has been inserted develop testes.

Question 7

Three Stages of Prenatal Development
Development of male and female reproductive structures involves three distinct processes: ?

intersex?

Answer 7

The development of (1) gonads(testis or ovaries), (2) internal organs, and (3) external genitalia.

In rare conditions known as intersex, elements of both male and female development occur in the same fetus. - hermaphrodite derogatory term

Question 8

Differentiation of the Internal Organs

Until about the third gestational month in humans, both male and female embryos possess a male WHAT system and a female WHAT system.

Each system does what for male and female development?

At six weeks everyone has?

Answer 8

Until about the third gestational month in humans, both male and female embryos possess a male Wolffian system and a female Müllerian system.

In males, the Wolffian system will develop into the seminal vesicles(fluid for sperm), the vas deferens(brings sperm where it needs to go), and the prostate(ejaculation).

In females, the Müllerian system will develop into the uterus, the upper portion of the vagina, and the fallopian tubes.

At six weeks everyone has wolf and mullerian so both until spilt

Question 8

During the third gestational month, the male’s testes begin to secrete two hormones?

Which two male hormones promotes the development of the Wolffian system?

Which hormone initiates the degeneration of the Müllerian system?

In the female fetus in this stage of development are hormones needed?

In the absence of which two hormones, the Müllerian system will develop in the?

In the absence of androgens, the Wolffian system ?

Answer 8

During the third gestational month, the male’s testes begin to secrete two hormones, testosterone and anti-Müllerian hormone.

Testosterone, one of several types of male hormone or androgen, promotes the development of the Wolffian system.

Anti-Müllerian hormone initiates the degeneration of the Müllerian system

In the female fetus, no additional hormones are needed in this stage of development.

In the absence of any androgens or anti-Müllerian hormones, the Müllerian system will develop in the typical female direction. Female do not need any extra hormones

In the absence of androgens, the Wolffian system regresses, although nonfunctional remnants can persist in adult females.

Question 9

Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) disrupts the normal development of WHICH system in males because of a defective gene that produces abnormal WHAT receptors, insensitive to WHAT two hormones but have bad receptors so can not receive testosterone despite how much is released. No receptor so ?

The testes release WHAT in a typical manner, but the lack of functional WHAT prevents the development of the Wolffian system.

Anti-Müllerian hormones WHAT, so the female Müllerian system also fails to develop.
External appearance is quite typically female.

Answer 9

Androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS) disrupts the normal development of the Wolffian system in males because of a defective gene that produces abnormal androgen receptors, insensitive to androgen/testosterone but have bad receptors so can not receive testosterone despite how much is released. No receptor so not penis to grow one needs receptor for testosterone.

The testes release androgens and anti-Müllerian hormone in a typical manner, but the lack of functional androgen receptors prevents the development of the Wolffian system.

Anti-Müllerian hormones still work normally, so the female Müllerian system also fails to develop.
External appearance is quite typically female.

Question 10

Development of the External Genitalia

The male external genitalia include the?

The female external genitalia include the?

Health care providers typically use the WHAT scale to assess the relative masculinization of the external genitalia.

An androgen WHAT must be recognized by receptor sites for the male external genitalia to develop normally. People who don’t have enough WHAT group up how?

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a condition in which the?

If genetic females are exposed prenatally to excess androgens, their external genitalia become?

Females with CAH more frequently describe themselves as?

Answer 10

The male external genitalia include the penis and scrotum. - Hormonal stimulation is essential for the development of male external genitalia.

The female external genitalia include the labia, clitoris, and outer part of the vagina.

Health care providers typically use the Prader scale to assess the relative masculinization of the external genitalia.

An androgen, 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone, must be recognized by receptor sites for the male external genitalia to develop normally. People who don’t have enough testosterone grow up as a female and then at puberty have penis.

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH) is a condition in which the adrenal glands release elevated levels of androgens during the second trimester of pregnancy, which is when sexual differentiation is well underway, the gonads turning. For males doesn’t do much to have extra but for girls are exposed to this so exhibit as tomboys.

If genetic females are exposed prenatally to excess androgens, their external genitalia become masculinized.

Females with CAH more frequently describe themselves as tomboys, engage in more male-interest play, and are more likely than other women to engage in bisexual and lesbian behavior.

Question 11

Development at Mini-puberty:? Males experience? play?

Development at Puberty:? lead to what?

Secondary sex characteristics include for male vs female?

Answer 11

Development at Mini-puberty: Males experience a second surge of androgen exposure between the ages of one and three months, diminishing by about the age of six months. (PSAI scores that they were tested on) gender typical or atypical play, those with normal or growing penis have typical play boy behavior compared to those with smaller.

Development at Puberty: At puberty, additional hormonal events lead to maturation of the genitals and the development of secondary sex characteristics.

Secondary sex characteristics: include facial hair and a deeper voice for males and wider hips and breast development for females.

Question 12

Typical Age at Puberty

Average age has dropped over the past 150 years. 1800 at 15 years old and then in 2020 average age WHAT? Why?

Weight?

Exposure to ?

Exposure to compounds similar to BLANK hormones in ?

All edible tissues from animals contain a type of estrogen, or female hormone, called ?

Estrogen type of WHAT like testorgen is a type of WHAT

Exposure in utero to a lot of endocrine disruptors, including WHAT might promote WHAT TWO

Phthalates(chemical in plastic)?

Researchers measured phthalate levels in pregnant women’s urine samples and compared that to sons’ toy use at ages 3 to 6.
Sons with high levels showed ???

Some of estradiol-like compounds that produce abnormalities are now prevalent in the??

Answer 12

Average age has dropped over the past 150 years. 1800 at 15 years old and then in 2020 average age 8-13 years old. Why better cleanness, health care, nutrient but other part is us being poisoned

Increased weight

Exposure to hormones or endocrine disruptors.

Exposure to compounds similar to female hormones in meat and dairy products, shampoo, plastics, and insecticides might also trigger earlier puberty.

All edible tissues from animals contain a type of estrogen, or female hormone, called estradiol, so we can assume that humans who consume meat have always experienced some level of exposure to outside sources of sex hormones.

Estrogen type of estradiol like testorgen is a type of androgen

Exposure in utero to a lot of endocrine disruptors, including phthalates, diethylstilbestrol (DES), and bisphenol A (BPA), might promote earlier puberty directly or by increasing obesity.

Phthalates(chemical in plastic) have been found to advance puberty in rats. Soy can be bad for you.
Phthalate exposure also appears to reduce the likelihood that boys will play with “masculine” toys.

Researchers measured phthalate levels in pregnant women’s urine samples and compared that to sons’ toy use at ages 3 to 6.
Sons with high levels showed less interest in typical boys’ toys, and more interest in typical girls’ toys.

Some of estradiol-like compounds that produce abnormalities are now prevalent in the linings of plastic bottles and cans, so almost everyone is exposed to them. - Phthalate. Found in all body organs like the brain and even babies.

Question 13

Hormone Changes at Puberty

At the onset of puberty WHAT IS released by the hypothalamus.

This hormone initiates the release of two hormones by the anterior pituitary gland?????

Who male or female release these? and which affects do the hormones have like what do they produce?

Answer 13

At the onset of puberty, gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) is released by the hypothalamus.

This hormone initiates the release of two hormones by the anterior pituitary gland, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - makes eggs on ovaries and sperm in testis and luteinizing hormone (LH) - signal males testes to produce testosterone and in females regulates menstrual cycle

Both males and females release these same hormones, but with different effects - egg vs sperm

In response to stimulation by FSH and LH, the testes begin to produce additional testosterone, and the ovaries produce estradiol.

The testes also produce small amounts of estrogens, including estradiol, and the ovaries produce small amounts of androgens, including testosterone.

In males, this burst of additional androgens stimulates muscular development, maturity of the external genitalia, facial and pubic hair, and enlargement of the larynx, which leads to a deeper voice, and Adams apple.
In conjunction with LH and FSH, testosterone begins to regulate the production of sperm.

In females, estradiol produces breast growth, maturity of the external genitalia, maturity of the uterus, and changes in fat distribution and quantity. - Estradiol can slow down skeletal growth if you get it earlier
LH and FSH regulate the menstrual cycle.

Question 14

A rare condition known as WHAT affects the maturation of the male external WHAT.

This condition affects a male’s ability to produce the enzyme WHAT THAT converts WHAT

Without sufficient THIS THEN individuals are born with ambiguous external genitalia and may be raised as WHAT.

At puberty, increased levels of WHAT activate the development of secondary sex characteristics in a typical manner.

Answer 14

A rare condition known as 5-alpha-reductase deficiency affects the maturation of the male external genitalia.

This condition affects a male’s ability to produce the enzyme 5-alpha-reductase which converts testosterone into the more potent 5-alpha-dihydrotestosterone.

Without sufficient 5-alpha-reductase, individuals are born with ambiguous external genitalia and may be raised as females. - without enough testosterone inside out penis so you think they are females until puberty hits and they grow a penis during puberty and most will be raised as a girl but then become happy

At puberty, increased levels of testosterone activate the development of secondary sex characteristics in a typical manner.

Question 15

The cascade of events begun by the actions of genes on the WHAT chromosomes is only the beginning of the story of sex and gender.

Continued expression of genes on both X and Y chromosomes, especially in the brain, hormone effects, and IN WHAT continue to push the individual in one of many possible directions.

Socialization plays a significant role in shaping WHAT

Answer 15

The cascade of events begun by the actions of genes on the X and Y chromosomes is only the beginning of the story of sex and gender.

Continued expression of genes on both X and Y chromosomes, especially in the brain, hormone effects, and epigenetics (environmental factors that can turn off or on genes) continue to push the individual in one of many possible directions.

Socialization plays a significant role in shaping male and female behavior, but recognizing the contributions of biology and the intricate interactions between biology and socialization enriches our understanding of sex and gender.

Question 16

Males and females both produce androgens and estrogens, but in different amounts.

Example: Adult females produce about HOW MUCH amount of androgens produced by adult males?

Organization(long lasting like growing breast or adam’s apple or penis): scaffolding and building, the predetermined effect of sex hormones on body parts that you were exposed to - HAPPENS TWICE 1 VS 2

Activation:?

Answer 16

Example: Adult females produce about 10% of the amount of androgens produced by adult males. Males more androgens and females more estrogen and progesterone(pregnancy hormone that maintains pregnancy and works some in menstruation)

Organization(long lasting like growing breast or adam’s apple or penis): scaffolding and building, the predetermined effect of sex hormones on body parts that you were exposed to -
Happens Twice
1. Prenatal - the sexual differentiation - organize circuits of brain like anatomy of hypothalamus
2. Puberty - deepen voice, facial hair, breast

Activation: moment to moment, reversible effects of sex hormones on body structures and functions; sex hormone how much of the hormone in your body right now affects you. Activated by sex hormones through the rest of life from the circuits. Circulating hormones. Example current hormone levels impact your sex drive.

Question 17

Organization During Development

Certain parts of the human brain are sexually dimorphic - ??

These differences are likely the result of different ???

Females with CAH:

Genetic females with CAH had extra ?

Pregnancies who are given CAH and have more?

Answer 17

Certain parts of the human brain are sexually dimorphic - males and females differ in brain areas like hypothalamus and pituitary gland

These differences are likely the result of different prenatal hormonal environments.

Females with CAH:

Genetic females with CAH had extra androgens during prenatal period so are partly masculine in genitalia and in behavior and more likely gay and tomboys and in male play

Pregnancies who are given CAH and have more testosterone than are affected more prenatally. CAH are always in the middle between typical females and typical male so the difference is had extra testosterone during developmental periods.

Question 18

Play behavior: Sex differences in play behavior

Toy choices by girls with CAH ? Girls without CAH play ? Boys who have CAH? healthy boys ?

In one study, infants 3 to 8 months old (too young to walk, crawl, or do much with a toy) sat in front of pairs of toys, where researchers could monitor eye movements. Girls liked ? and boys liked?

Children begin to prefer sex-typed toys between the ages of ? tells us what about prefrence?

In several studies with monkeys???

Answer 18

Toy choices by girls with CAH are significantly more likely to be in the masculine direction than in the feminine direction. Girls without CAH play with girls toys vs girls who have CAH play with boys toys more but are still in the middle between boys and girls toys. Boys who have CAH are just extra testosterone so does not see a big difference in healthy boys or those with CAH.

In one study, infants 3 to 8 months old (too young to walk, crawl, or do much with a toy) sat in front of pairs of toys, where researchers could monitor eye movements. Girls liked dolls and boys liked trucks - take with grain of salt but no for sure at one year old do start to prefer because grab what they want.

Children begin to prefer sex-typed toys between the ages of 12 and 18 months
- At these ages, they are unable to match sex-typed toys with male or female faces or voices, suggesting that they have not yet been socialized to think of toys as male or female.
So, some about socialization and some about a biologically preference

In several studies male monkeys played with balls and toy cars more than female monkeys did, whereas the females played more with dolls.
Socialization is even less likely to play a role in the toy choices of these monkeys.
Blue and pink is socialization and not biological

Question 19

Gender identity is defined as a person’s?

In transsexuality?

Females with CAH - transsexuality?

Answer 19

Gender identity is defined as a person’s self-concept as male or female and is usually viewed as the product of years of socialization.

In transsexuality, a person’s gender identity is inconsistent with his or her biological sex and can be resolved with sex-reassignment surgery and hormonal treatment.

Females with CAH - transsexuality in biological females is rare 3% but women with CAH is 600 times more likely to be transsexuality

Question 20

Many studies have pointed to higher empathy in ?

Females with CAH?

Lowest with testosterone more?

Males (both human and nonhuman) have been shown to have a slight advantage in ?

Females have a slight advantage in?

Visuospatial skills are correlated with?

Mental Rotation task who is better?

A number of psychological disorders?

Answer 20

Many studies have pointed to higher empathy in females and higher levels of physical aggression in males. The higher the testosterone the lower the empathy score.

Females with CAH(prenatal higher levels of testosterone released - so decreased empathy) and decreased empathy and more aggression

Lowest with testosterone more empathy

Males (both human and nonhuman) have been shown to have a slight advantage in visuospatial tasks - cognition

Females have a slight advantage in verbal tasks and episodic memory, or memory for events in a personal timeline.

Visuospatial skills are correlated with current, not necessarily prenatal, testosterone levels in both men and women.

Mental Rotation task - males are better bc of testosterone and worse when estrogen is high

A number of psychological disorders show big differences in prevalence rates for men and women. Autism is more males and depression is more females.

Question 21

Sexual orientation refers to?

Early exposure to sex hormones influences adult sexual behavior in animals and humans. If you do or don’t have testosterone exposure prenatally impacts?

Birth order:
Males with older brothers are more likely to be ?
Mother’s immune response to ?

Answer 21

Sexual orientation refers to a stable pattern of attraction to members of a particular sex.
Approximately 1.8 percent of adult males and 1.5 percent of adult females identify themselves as gay or lesbian, and 0.4 percent of men and 0.9 percent of women describe themselves as bisexual.

Early exposure to sex hormones influences adult sexual behavior in animals and humans. If you do or don’t have testosterone exposure prenatally impacts sexual behavior, low testosterone in males are less likely to engage with females.

Birth order:
Males with older brothers are more likely to be homosexual
Mother’s immune response to Y chromosome proteins may strengthen with subsequent pregnancies

Question 22

Sexually dimorphic structures also differ according to sexual orientation in males.

INAH-3 (hypothalamus) is smaller among?

Lesions in monkeys’ INAH-3 impairs?

INAH-3 was two to three times larger in?

Anterior commissure?

INAH-3 Size Correlates with?

Genetics appear to influence sexual orientation, although the exact mechanisms are not well understood and are likely to be quite complex:

The chances of a homosexual male twin having a homosexual brother are WHAT% for fraternal twins(share environment not genes) and about WHAT% for identical twins.

If a homosexual orientation depends on certain genes, why hasn’t evolution selected strongly against those genes?

Answer 22

INAH-3 (hypothalamus) is smaller among women and homosexual men than among heterosexual men.

Lesions in monkeys’ INAH-3 impairs heterosexual behavior but not overall sex drive.

INAH-3 was two to three times larger in heterosexual males than in homosexual males.

Anterior commissure - bundle of fibers that brings info connected to the cerebral hemispheres and is sexually dimorphic and is largest in homosexual males, then heterosexual females, smallest in heterosexual males.

INAH-3 Size Correlates with Sexual Orientation

Genetics appear to influence sexual orientation, although the exact mechanisms are not well understood and are likely to be quite complex:

The chances of a homosexual male twin having a homosexual brother are 20 to 25% for fraternal twins(share environment not genes) and about 50% for identical twins.

If a homosexual orientation depends on certain genes, why hasn’t evolution selected strongly against those genes?
Genes may be maintained by kin selection.
Even if homosexual people do not have children themselves, they might do a wonderful job of helping their brothers and sister’s rear children.

Question 23

WHICH GENDER perform better than WHICH GENDER on visuospatial tasks, regardless of sexual orientation:

Heterosexual males outperform ?

Homosexual and bisexual females scored about?

Results on verbal fluency tasks:
Homosexual males outperformed ?
Homosexual males and heterosexual females outperformed ?

Answer 23

Males perform better than females on visuospatial tasks, regardless of sexual orientation:

Heterosexual males outperform homosexual males, with bisexual males scoring between these groups. Best hetero man, bisexual, worst homo men

Homosexual and bisexual females scored about equally, outperforming heterosexual females.

Results on verbal fluency tasks:
Homosexual males outperformed heterosexual females
Homosexual males and heterosexual females outperformed heterosexual males and homosexual females(worst)

Question 24

The activation of behavior by hormones is particularly important to?

The hypothalamus manages the release of sex hormones through its?

WHAT stimulates release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) by the WHAT?

Answer 24

The activation of behavior by hormones is particularly important to sexual behavior beginning at puberty and extends throughout the remainder of the life span.

The hypothalamus manages the release of sex hormones through its secretion of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

GnRH stimulates release of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) by the pituitary gland. - FSH and LH control the menstrual cycle and then males LH release testosterone for testis and FSH causes sperm to mature.

Question 25

Approximately WHAT percent of women experience premenstrual syndrome (PMS) in response to?

Severe cases of premenstrual mood changes are diagnosed as?

Within WHAT year of the delivery of a baby, approximatelyWHAT % of women experience postpartum depression
- Mothers at highest risk are?
- Predicted by evaluating sensitivity to?

Answer 25

Approximately 5 to 8 percent of women experience premenstrual syndrome (PMS) in response to shifts in the hormones that regulate the menstrual cycle.

Severe cases of premenstrual mood changes are diagnosed as premenstrual dysphoric disorder (PMDD). Maybe serotonin dysfunction SSRI

Within one year of the delivery of a baby, approximately 10 to 15% of women experience postpartum depression
- Mothers at highest risk are younger than 20, unmarried, less educated, and of lower SES.
- Predicted by evaluating sensitivity to estrogen signaling.

Question 26

Sexual interest in human females also other animals:
Estrus VS nonestrus cycles
ovulation AND Estrogens?

Sexual interest in human males:
Can vary by culture
Young men’s WHAR is not strongly correlated with sexual frequency as long as it is within normal limits.
Sexual frequency of older men correlated with WHAT levels.

WAHT reduction has been tried as a means of controlling sex offenders.
Difficulties include:?

Answer 26

Sexual interest in human females also other animals:
Estrus(humans do not have bc not seasonal) and nonestrus cycles
Slightly more interest reported around ovulation
Estrogens linked to female sexual desire

Sexual interest in human males:
Can vary by culture
Young men’s testosterone is not strongly correlated with sexual frequency as long as it is within normal limits.
Sexual frequency of older men correlated with testosterone levels.

Testosterone reduction has been tried as a means of controlling sex offenders.
Difficulties include:
Sex offenders may discontinue the medication.
Negative side effects such as diabetes, depression, and weight gain.

Question 27

Sexual Interest in Human Females

Human females show receptivity throughout the menstrual cycle, although women report feeling more interest in sex around ?

Females near ovulation assessed the sexual orientation of ?

Birth Control: LH and FSH
Steps 1-3?

Answer 27

Human females show receptivity throughout the menstrual cycle, although women report feeling more interest in sex around the time of ovulation.

Females near ovulation assessed the sexual orientation of men more accurately but showed no comparable improvement in their ability to assess the sexual orientation of other women.

Birth Control: LH and FSH
Step 1: Makes thicker cervical mucus and slows down sperm
Step 2: Stops ovulation and if there’s no egg a pregnant can’t happen
Step 3: Thins the lining of the uterus and it makes it difficult for a fertilized egg to attach and cause pregnancy

Question 28

Female-Initiated Sexual Activities

Women taking birth control pills?

Women using intrusive methods?

Women using non intrusive methods?

Women were presented with a computer that enabled them to modify pictures of men’s faces to make each one look more feminine or more masculine. During ovulation prefer?

Autosexual activities is ?

Women tend to be better than men at recognizing ?

Answer 28

Women taking birth control pills - least likely to have autosexual activities so no estrogen do not pick like ovulation

Women using intrusive methods - condoms

Women using non intrusive methods - IUD or vasectomy

Women were presented with a computer that enabled them to modify pictures of men’s faces to make each one look more feminine or more masculine. During ovulation prefer a more masculine

Autosexual activities is masturbation and fantasy

Women tend to be better than men at recognizing facial expressions of emotion.
In one study, women’s task was to examine photos of faces and try to identify the expressed emotions among six choices: anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise.

Question 29

Sexual Interest in Human Males

Men in stable, long-term marriages have lower ?

Men’s testosterone levels drop significantly following?

These fluctuations might reflect a feedback loop in which decreases ?

On average, a man’s testosterone level decreases and his WHAT level increases after ?

Testosterone levels correlate positively with ?

Testosterone levels appear to increase in anticipation of?

Following a competition, winners experience an increase in ?

Observing a competition can also influence?

Answer 29

Men in stable, long-term marriages have lower testosterone levels than single men or men who are within a few years of divorce.

Men’s testosterone levels drop significantly following the birth of a child.

These fluctuations might reflect a feedback loop in which decreases in testosterone follow reproductive success. If reproduces then do not need to work so hard to reproduce anymore so less testosterone like less competition

On average, a man’s testosterone level decreases and his prolactin level increases after a baby is born, especially if the man spends hours a day interacting with the child

Testosterone levels correlate positively with sexual arousal and the drive to seek sexual partners.

Testosterone levels appear to increase in anticipation of a competition.

Following a competition, winners experience an increase in testosterone, while losers experience a decrease.

Observing a competition can also influence testosterone.

Question 30

Viewing beautiful people activates WHAT in the brain.

A preference for beauty is evident at a?

Cultures have their own definitions of ?

People vary in frequency of sexual ?

Evolutionary explanations are controversial in explaining ?

nucleus accumbens -?

Darwin’s theory states that individuals whose genes help them survive will produce more ?

Sexual selection: ?

Answer 30

Viewing beautiful people activates reward circuits in the brain.

A preference for beauty is evident at a very early age, before the media and other cultural factors have had a chance to influence perceptions

Cultures have their own definitions of physical beauty.

People vary in frequency of sexual behavior, preferred types of sexual activity, and sexual orientation.

Evolutionary explanations are controversial in explaining mating behavior.

nucleus accumbens - reward center

Darwin’s theory states that individuals whose genes help them survive will produce more offspring, and therefore the next generation will resemble those with these favorable genes.

Sexual selection: a mechanism of evolution that occurs when organisms compete for mates or resources that lead to mating - It can produce secondary sex characteristics, like elaborate tails on peacocks. The bird sitting on the nest can’t be colorful

Question 31

Interest in Multiple Mates – Men
- Men are more likely to seek ?
- Two evolutionary explanations for success in ?

Interest in Multiple Mates – Women
- Women can gain from having ?
- No direct evidence suggests that ?

Differences in Jealousy:
- Men are ?
- Needs to be sure that the children he supports are his own.
- Cultural attitudes towards infidelity vary.
- No known culture exists where infidelity is more ?

Answer 31

Interest in Multiple Mates – Men
- Men are more likely to seek multiple sex partners, especially for short-term encounters.
- Two evolutionary explanations for success in spreading a man’s genes.

Interest in Multiple Mates – Women
- Women can gain from having multiple sexual partners.
- No direct evidence suggests that specific genes influence whether people prefer single or multiple mates.

Differences in Jealousy:
- Men are more jealous at indications of a wife’s infidelity.
- Needs to be sure that the children he supports are his own.
- Cultural attitudes towards infidelity vary.
- No known culture exists where infidelity is more acceptable for women.

Question 32

What Men and Women Seek in a Mate:
- Both men and women prefer a romantic partner that is ?
- Women prefer partners who are likely to be ?
- Men tend to prefer a ?
- Women prefer ?

Elements of Physical Attractiveness:
- Symmetry is perceived as ?
- Preferred features for?
- Youthful female features preferred ?
- Female responses to male features are ?
- Masculine features more ?
- Less masculine features preferred for?

Answer 32

What Men and Women Seek in a Mate:
- Both men and women prefer a romantic partner that is healthy, intelligent, honest, and physically attractive.
- Women prefer partners who are likely to be good providers.
- Men tend to prefer a young partner.
- Women prefer young partners, when possible, but in many societies, only older men have enough financial resources.

Elements of Physical Attractiveness:
- Symmetry is perceived as beautiful
- Preferred features for males and females
- Youthful female features preferred by males
- Female responses to male features are inconsistent
- Masculine features more sexually desirable
- Less masculine features preferred for long-term relationships

Question 33

All animals produce circadian rhythms HOW LONG → WHAT ARE all control by circadian rhythm? 8

year one CALLED WHAT?

Regular ultradian cycles of relative activation and quiet also occur WHEN?

The Daily Activity of a Squirrel Kept in Total Darkness → SHOWED WHAT?

Daily Pattern of Body Temperature:
Mean rectal temperatures for nine adults. - temp is highest and lowest a WHEN AND WHY?

The purpose of the circadian rhythm is to keep WHAT?

Human free-running circadian rhythms last approximately ??

Resetting our circadian rhythms is sometimes necessary so not perfect for HOW LONG ADJUST WHEN?

Answer 33

All animals produce circadian rhythms (repeating for 24 hours) → activity, sleep/wake timing, mood, cognitive functioning, body temp, metabolic functioning, cardiovascular, and feeding all control by circadian rhythm

• circannual year one

Regular ultradian cycles of relative activation and quiet also occur about every 90 to 120 minutes within the 24-hour day

The Daily Activity of a Squirrel Kept in Total Darkness → everyday waking up a little earlier bc not perfect 24hr rhythm so each day without sun wake up earlier so consistent rhythm of activity and sleep - indigenous rhythm coming from within with no outside cues in a non changing environment

Daily Pattern of Body Temperature:
Mean rectal temperatures for nine adults. - temp is highest in afternoon and lowest a few hours after falling asleep so temp goes down during night to conserve energy
6 hours before sleep is highest and 2 hours after sleep lowest

The purpose of the circadian rhythm is to keep our internal workings in phase with the outside world.

Human free-running circadian rhythms last approximately 24.2 hours to 24.9 hours.

Resetting our circadian rhythms is sometimes necessary so not perfect for 24hr so must adjust like weekend change rhythm on Monday fix it

Question 34

Zeitgebers WHAT KIND OF cue for setting WHAT - land animal is WHAT and sea animals is WHAT – others could be WHAT

Exposure to sunlight each day helps WHAT?

The sun time at the eastern end of Germany differs by about half an hour from that at the western edge. - this told us that for land animals WHAT??

What about blind people?

For those who are not sufficiently sensitive to these secondary zeitgebers, do you think their circadian rhythms are longer or shorter than 24 hours?

Answer 34

Zeitgebers- An external cue for setting biological rhythms - external cues to set biological clock → land animal is sun and sea animals is tide thats when wake up – others could be temp, food availability, social interactions, light intensity, activity that all help you wake up

Exposure to sunlight each day helps reset, or entrain, the internal biological clock to the 24-hour cycle of the earth’s rotation.

The sun time at the eastern end of Germany differs by about half an hour from that at the western edge. - this told us that for land animals Zeitgebers is sun - sun influence when wake up

What about blind people? example blind people have sleep problems
- Some set their rhythms by noise, temperature, meals, and activity bc dont have sun as Zeitgebers

For those who are not sufficiently sensitive to these secondary zeitgebers, do you think their circadian rhythms are longer or shorter than 24 hours? Longer

Question 35

Individual differences in patterns of wakefulness and alertness.

These individual sleep patterns result from different WHAT

Larks(morning bird) versus night owls - ?????

Changes as a function of age - young VS adolescents?????

Answer 35

These individual sleep patterns result from different versions of the genes responsible for our internal clocks.

Larks(morning bird) versus night owls - many people fall between the two and morning people have better and happy mental health bc it aligns with 9-5 working schedule

Changes as a function of age - young kids go to sleep early, adolescents and puberty are going to bed late so most are night owls which is seen in other animals like monkey/rats and theory is has to do with hormones drop in melatonin seen in every culture, until age 20 go sleep later and later then go to bed earlier and earlier until old age. Elementary school start earliest than highschool start later

Question 36

Shift maladaptation syndrome IS WHAT?

Shift workers obtain HOW MUCH LESS SLEEP? leading to WHAT?

Conflicts between internal clocks & external zeitgebers result in WHAT?

After crossing time zones, people often experience WHAT FIVE THINGS?

Chronic jet lag might have serious WHAT?

Disruption of WHAT?

North to South travel like flight attendants not to blame it is the crossing of WHAT?

East to West is WHAT?

Traveling west WHAT BLANK our circadian rhythms.

Traveling east WHAT BLANK our circadian rhythms.

Daylight saving time offers another opportunity to observe our responses to WHAT?

Answer 36

Shift maladaptation syndrome - shift works how work different times like at night

Shift workers obtain 1.5 hours less total sleep than workers on other shifts, leading to frequent health, personality, mood, and interpersonal problems. - convenience stores, bakers, hospitals, cops - these people more likely to get breast cancer

Conflicts between internal clocks & external zeitgebers result in jet lag.

After crossing time zones, people often experience fatigue, irritability, sleepiness, memory issues, and heart problems.

Chronic jet lag might have serious consequences.

Disruption of circadian rhythms

North to South travel like flight attendants not to blame it is the crossing of time zones

East to West is best (NY to LA) - west to east is a beast

Traveling west phase-delays our circadian rhythms.

Traveling east phase-advances our circadian rhythms.

Daylight saving time offers another opportunity to observe our responses to phase shifts.

Question 37

The body’s internal master clock is the WHAT AND WHERE IS IT - for sleep and body temp - damage here makes body erratic

Input to the SCN comes from axons of special cells known as WHAT which leave the optic nerve and project to the SCN, WHAT pathway. WHAT nerves axons leave optic and go to SCN so instated of send vision signaling send to THE WHAT AND SAY WHAT - job of cells is TO WHAT - LIGHT STUFF?

The ipRGCs contain a photopigment known as WHAT.

The SCN is active only during WHAT TIME?

True regardless of whether a species is WHAT?

The SCN(part of WHAT) manages other sleep-related changes, including WHAT FIVE

Activity in the human SCN produces a response in the WHAT nervous system, which in turn communicates with the WHAT

As light decreases in the evening, accompanied by reduced SCN activity, less input from the WHAT AND RELASE WHAT

The SCN is not dependent on input from other structures to maintain its rhythms.
- A single isolated SCN cell can maintain a WHAT rhythm. Single will continue with the rhyme bc its coming from WHERE
- Damage to the SCN - results IN WHAT?
- Transplanted SCN tissue - WHAT SHOWS

Answer 37

The body’s internal master clock is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the hypothalamus above optic thalamus - for sleep and body temp - damage here makes body erratic

Input to the SCN comes from axons of special cells known as intrinsically photosensitive retinal ganglion cells (ipRGCs), which leave the optic nerve and project to the SCN, forming the retinohypothalamic pathway. Ganglion nerves axons leave optic and go to SCN so instated of send vision signaling send to thamals to say if it’s day or night - job of cells is just to tell you about sustained light so the sun not a flash of light or images - retina to hypothalamus separate from the visual pathway but coming from eyes - this why look at blue screens at night keep you awake at night bc these cells are activated by sunlight and blue light

The ipRGCs contain a photopigment known as melanopsin.

The SCN is active only during the day.

True regardless of whether a species is diurnal (awake during the day) or nocturnal (awake at night). Nocturnal opposite effect so doing the opposite

The SCN(part of hypothalamus) manages other sleep-related changes, including body temperature, hormone secretion, production of urine, and blood pressure changes.

Activity in the human SCN produces a response in the sympathetic nervous system, which in turn communicates with the pineal gland.

As light decreases in the evening, accompanied by reduced SCN activity, less input from the sympathetic neurons allows the pineal gland to synthesize and release more melatonin.

The SCN is not dependent on input from other structures to maintain its rhythms.
- A single isolated SCN cell can maintain a circadian rhythm. Single will continue with the rhyme bc its coming from the inside
- Damage to the SCN - results in less consistent body rhythms that are no longer with light and dark
- Transplanted SCN tissue - can bread rhythms that are normal 24hr and other 20hr short period hamster - transplant short to normal hamster now that normal will have a short cycle and when normal goes to short the short will have normal so both cases the transplant matches the donor - - rhythm from SCN themselves

Question 38

The Cellular Basis of Circadian Rhythms 24hr Period

Researchers found HOW MANY separate genes and their protein products that are involved with WHAT

These genes and their proteins are WHAT THREE THINGS

Similar processes involving additional circadian genes and proteins occur in mice and other mammals, including humans.
Wake in morning per and tim are WHAT concentrations WHAT MAKES THESE TWO?- to make clock concentrations will increase - per and time takes HOW LONG TO MAKE BUT in WHAT concentrations but when sun goes down concentration per and time DO WHAT and inhibit the WHO

Answer 38

Researchers found three separate genes and their protein products that are involved with cellular circadian rhythms.

These genes and their proteins are per (for period), tim (for timeless), and Clock (for circadian locomotor output cycles kaput).

Similar processes involving additional circadian genes and proteins occur in mice and other mammals, including humans. Wake in morning per and tim are low concentrations of RNA increase and make it, messenger RNA stars cascade of events that make per and time - to make clock concentrations will increase - per and time takes all day to make but status in low concentrations but when sun goes down concentration per and time go up and inhibit the messenger RNA - per and time high inhibit clock bc have enough

Question 39

The Biochemistry of Circadian Rhythms

The SCN regulates the release of WHAT from WHERE into theWHAT

Lesions of the SCN abolish THE WHAT

Melatonin release is suppressed by WHAT. Melatonin peaks at WHAT TIME

Melatonin supplements have been reported to improve cases of a number of WHAT

Adverse reactions to melatonin are rare, but melatonin supplements remain an alternative medical approach lacking thorough testing. - MAYBE AND WHICH PEOPLE?

Levels of the hormone WHAT fluctuate with patterns of waking and sleeping.
Levels are normally high AND LOW WHEN?

Higher levels are associated with THINGS?

Stress:

Jet lag:

Answer 39

The SCN regulates the release of melatonin from the pineal gland into the CSF of the third ventricle.

Lesions of the SCN abolish the circadian release of melatonin.

Melatonin release is suppressed by light. Melatonin peaks at 4am, that’s when everyone struggles to stay awake.

Melatonin supplements have been reported to improve cases of a number of sleep disorders.

Adverse reactions to melatonin are rare, but melatonin supplements remain an alternative medical approach lacking thorough testing. - maybe placebo - people with autism have low levels of melatonin

Levels of the hormone cortisol fluctuate with patterns of waking and sleeping.
Levels are normally high early in the morning and lower at night.

Higher levels are associated with higher blood pressure, higher heart rate, and the mobilization of the body’s energy stores. Want higher in morning for arousal and lower at night

Stress: released during times of stress cortisol

Jet lag: contribute to jet lag - stress crossing time zones

Question 40

WHAT leads to major depressive disorder (MDD) with seasonal patterns. - no longer called SAD seasonal now called MDD

Rates of seasonal depression vary from WHAT WHERE

Several mechanisms appear to lead to seasonal depression:
- Serotonin levels typically WHAT
- Could also be influenced by disruptions in release OF WHAT CAUSED BY WHAT
- Variations in WHAT

Seasonal depression is treated by exposure TO WHAT

Light therapy administered at dawn corrects cases in which people WHAT

Following light therapy, serotonin transporter binding was WHAT

Answer 40

During the winter months at higher latitudes the reduction in daylight hours can interfere with circadian rhythms and lead to major depressive disorder (MDD) with seasonal patterns. - no longer called SAD seasonal now called MDD

Rates of seasonal depression vary from 1.4 percent in sunny Florida to 9.7 percent in cloudier New Hampshire.

Several mechanisms appear to lead to seasonal depression:
- Serotonin levels typically drop in the fall and winter, and people vulnerable to seasonal depression might experience a greater than normal decrease.
- Could also be influenced by disruptions in melatonin release caused by uneven patterns of daily light.
- Variations in genes

Seasonal depression is treated by exposure to bright lights, with or without melatonin supplementation and antidepressants.

Light therapy administered at dawn corrects cases in which people stay up too late, whereas light therapy in the evening helps people who are sleepy too early.

Following light therapy, serotonin transporter binding was reduced in several brain structures, including the anterior cingulate cortex and prefrontal cortex.

Question 41

Both waking and sleep are active processes that are carefully WHAT by the brain.

These states are not simply the results of activity in “waking” or “sleep” centers but, rather, involve WHAT TWO THINGS

Evaluate waking & sleep using WHAT RECORDINGS FROM WHAT.

Desynchronous brain activity:
- Independent action of WHAT
- Correlated with WHAT

Synchronous brain activity:
- Neurons are firing WHAT
- Characterizes WHAT

Answer 41

Both waking and sleep are active processes that are carefully choreographed by the brain.

These states are not simply the results of activity in “waking” or “sleep” centers but, rather, involve reciprocal circuits of excitation and inhibition.

Evaluate waking & sleep using EEG recordings from a polysomnograph.

Desynchronous brain activity:
- Independent action of many neurons
- Correlated with alertness

Synchronous brain activity:
- Neurons are firing more in unison
- Characterizes deep stages of sleep

Question 42

The EEG During Waking

Waking is characterized by alternating periods of WHAT TWO?

Alpha is associated with WHAT COMAPRED TO BETA?

Gamma band activity is usually seen WHAT

In children and young adults, EEG recordings during waking might also include brief moments of WHAT

Organized and sustained theta waves during wakefulness is usually WHAT

Theta activity characterizeS WHAT?

Answer 42

Waking is characterized by alternating periods of alpha and beta activity, with the occasional burst of gamma band activity.

Alpha is associated with mind wandering and unfocused thought, while beta activity is associated with focused thought.

Gamma band activity is usually seen in response to stimuli.

In children and young adults, EEG recordings during waking might also include brief moments of theta wave (4 to 7 cycles per second) frequencies.

Organized and sustained theta waves during wakefulness is usually restricted to cases of brain damage or neurological disorder.

Theta activity characterizes lighter stages of sleep, although it begins to intrude into the waking EEGs of sleep-deprived volunteers.

Question 43

The EEG During Sleep

Sleep consists of alternating periods of WHAT TWO?

After learning increase in WHAT TWO?
Stage 3 and 4 is WHAT AND 4 HAS MORE WHAT?
Slow wave sleep is WHAT slow cells
Stage 1 and 2 less WHAT
Go 1234 REM 4321 so must go through A WHAT? - begging of night is WHAT wave sleep and end of night is dominated by WHAT - first REM cycle is WHAT and last on is WHAT?

Sleep begins when a person enters WHAT

In stage 1, the EEG is difficult to distinguish from WHAT

Some WHAT wave activity now occurs, and heart rate and muscle tension begin to WHAT

Myoclonia: ?

After 10 to 15 minutes, stage WHAT GOES TO WHAT STAGE

Further reductions in WHAT OCCUR

The EEG begins to show sleep WHAT TWO

Spindles and K-complexes might reflect the brain’s efforts to keep WHAT

After about 15 minutes in stage 2, we enter stage WHAT

During these stages, body temperature, breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate are at very low levels due to the activity of the WHAT nervous system.

Both stage 3 and stage 4 feature WHAT wave activity, which is the largest, slowest (1 to 4 cycles per second), most synchronized waveform of the sleeping state.

After approximately HOW MANY minutes of NREM, a first period of WHAT OCCCURS ALSO OTHER NAME FOR IT

The transition between stage 4 and REM is abrupt, but it usually involves WHAT

In eight hours of sleep, the average person typically experiences HOW MANY periods of REM.

During REM, the EEG shows activity very similar to WHAT WAVES

Energy use by the brain accelerates, reaching or possibly exceeding rates during WHAT.

The eyes make periodic back-and-forth movements. Theories is scanning FOR WHAT

The sympathetic nervous system becomes WHAT

Major postural muscles are completely WHAT CAUSING WHAT

EEG recordings show the cycling of sleep stages over an eight-hour period.
- The first four hours contain WHAT STAGES, and the second four hours contain WHAT

Circuits connecting the WHAT THREE PLAYS AN essential roles in the initiation and maintenance of stages of waking and sleep!

Answer 43

Sleep consists of alternating periods of rapid eye movement (REM) sleep and non-REM (NREM) sleep.

After learning increase in sleep spindles and K complex
Stage 3 and 4 is slow wave sleep - 4 has more slow waves
Slow wave sleep is synchronized slow cells
Stage 1 and 2 less synchronized
Go 1234 REM 4321 so must go through ladder up and down - begging of night is slow wave sleep and end of night is dominated by REM - first REM cycle is shortest and last on is longer ones

Sleep begins when a person enters stage 1 of NREM.

In stage 1, the EEG is difficult to distinguish from the waking EEG of a drowsy person.

Some theta wave activity now occurs, and heart rate and muscle tension begin to decrease.

Myoclonia: a medical sign that describes a brief, involuntary, and uncontrollable twitching or jerking of a muscle or group of muscles. It’s not a disease itself, but rather a clinical sign

After 10 to 15 minutes, stage 1 gives way to stage 2 NREM, which accounts for about 50 percent of the night’s entire sleep.

Further reductions in heart rate and muscle tension occur.

The EEG begins to show sleep spindles and K-complexes.

Spindles and K-complexes might reflect the brain’s efforts to keep us asleep while continuing to monitor the external environment.

After about 15 minutes in stage 2, we enter stage 3 and stage 4 NREM sleep.

During these stages, body temperature, breathing, blood pressure, and heart rate are at very low levels due to the activity of the parasympathetic nervous system.

Both stage 3 and stage 4 feature delta wave activity, which is the largest, slowest (1 to 4 cycles per second), most synchronized waveform of the sleeping state.

After approximately 90 minutes of NREM, a first period of REM (paradoxical) sleep occurs.

The transition between stage 4 and REM is abrupt, but it usually involves brief passages through stage 3 and stage 2 sleep.

In eight hours of sleep, the average person typically experiences five periods of REM.

During REM, the EEG shows activity very similar to beta activity observed during waking, with occasional periods of theta activity. Paradoxical sleep deep sleep

Energy use by the brain accelerates, reaching or possibly exceeding rates during wakefulness.

The eyes make periodic back-and-forth movements. Theories is scanning dreams or no circulatory system in the eyeball but there is in the retina so when sleeping fluid in eyes is not moving getting to the cornea so the cornea gets the nutrients and fluid it needs

The sympathetic nervous system becomes active; heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing become rapid or irregular.

Major postural muscles are completely inactive, effectively paralyzing the sleeper.

EEG recordings show the cycling of sleep stages over an eight-hour period.
- The first four hours contain most of the stage 3 and stage 4 NREM, and the second four hours contain most of the REM sleep.

Circuits connecting the brainstem, hypothalamus, and basal forebrain play essential roles in the initiation and maintenance of stages of waking and sleep.

Question 44

Sleep and the Inhibition of Brain Activity

Sleep depends partly on decreased WHAT input to the WHERE

During sleep, neurons in the
WHERE WHICH IS WHAT BECOME HYPO OR DEPO?
- when sleep don’t want to get senses THIS IS TO MAKE IT HARDER FOR WHAT TO FIRE?

When they do fire, they fire in WHAT bursts, yielding the WHAT waves that characterize WHAT KIND OF SLEEP

During sleep, axons that release the WHICH NT increase their activity, interfering with the spread of information from one neuron to another. When stimulus does not spread, it is not WHAT BC WHY

Functions of THIS NT are important for:
- Decreasing WHAT TWO THINGS
- Decreasing the stimulation of WHAT

Answer 44

Sleep depends partly on decreased sensory input to the cerebral cortex.

During sleep, neurons in the thalamus(major relay center except smell) become hyperpolarized. - when sleep don’t want to get senses so hyperpolarize to make it harder for AP to fire and thalamus to send info so might not hear toilet flush but fully blocked so hear fire alarm - slow wave sleep happening bc of the thalamus hyperpolarized

When they do fire, they fire in synchronous bursts, yielding the high-amplitude waves that characterize slow-wave sleep.

During sleep, axons that release the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA (shown in red) increase their activity, interfering with the spread of information from one neuron to another. When stimulus does not spread, it is not conscious bc not aware of stimulus bc asleep.

Functions of the inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA are important for:
- Decreasing the temperature and metabolic rate - temp lower couple hours after sleep to conserve energy and metabolic rate conserve energy which is a function of sleep
- Decreasing the stimulation of neurons
- save energy and calories

Question 45

Sleep as a Local Phenomenon

Because sleep depends on GABA-mediated inhibition, sleep can be local within the brain. WHICH MEANS WHAT FOR DIFF BRAIN AREAS???

Have you ever had the experience of waking up but finding that you cannot move your arms or legs?

Answer 45

Because sleep depends on GABA-mediated inhibition, sleep can be local within the brain. Sustained inhibition in one brian area and not the other which is dolphins bc need to be aware enough to go up for air/sleep while the other brain half is asleep then switch. Usually most brain areas are all asleep bc of GABA but when not everything is asleep have sleep paralysis.

Have you ever had the experience of waking up but finding that you cannot move your arms or legs?
- Sleep paralysis occurs when your brain is active, but your muscles are still in sleep mode. Pons is still in REM sleep so temporarily can’t move.

Question 46

The Functions of Sleep

The adverse effects of sleep deprivation suggest that sleep is WHAT?

Most animals show activity levels that follow circadian rhythms with at least one period in which they are WHAT AND RESPONSE LESS TO WHAT

Answer 46

The adverse effects of sleep deprivation suggest that sleep is beneficial.

Most animals show activity levels that follow circadian rhythms with at least one period in which they are relatively quiet and less responsive to external stimuli.

Question 47

Changes in Sleep Over the Lifetime

Not only does the overall amount of sleep change over the lifespan, but the WHAT CHANGES?

Newborn infants spend HOW MUCH TIME SLEEPING

Between the ages of one and five years, most children sleep approximately HOW MUCH

Teens often feel the need for increased amounts of sleep, SLEEP HOW MUCH.

Around the age of 50, total sleep time begins to WHAT AND HOW LONG SLEEP

Answer 47

Not only does the overall amount of sleep change over the lifespan, but the composition of sleep is altered as well.

Newborn infants spend as much as 14 to 16 hours per day in sleep.

Between the ages of one and five years, most children sleep approximately 8.7 hours.

Teens often feel the need for increased amounts of sleep, possibly 9–10 hours per night.

Around the age of 50, total sleep time begins to decrease by about 27 minutes per decade into a person’s eighties.

Question 48

Possible Advantages of Sleep

Sleep takes many forms across species, and it is unlikely that sleep WHAT

Sleep Keeps Us Safe:
Researchers were able to predict a species’ sleep habits accurately based on the animals’ risk of WHAT TWO THINGS?

Sleep Restores Our Bodies:
- ​​Sleep, particularly WHICH SLEEP, helps us restore our bodies and WHAT?
- Sleep deprivation results in several WHAT AND WHERE PROBLEM IS?
- Increased physical demands during the day correlate with a need for increased amounts of sleep the following night, reinforcing the role of WHAT???

Conservation of energy is accomplished via:
- Decrease in body WHAT
- Decrease in WHAT
- Animals increase their sleep duration during WHAT

Hibernation: ?

Most human growth hormone (GH) is released during stages WHAT WHEN?
- In childhood, GH is primarily responsible for WHAT??
- The release of growth hormone during WHEN peaks around the onset of WHAT and begins to drop by age 21.

Answer 48

Sleep takes many forms across species, and it is unlikely that sleep serves a single purpose for all different animals.

Sleep Keeps Us Safe:
Researchers were able to predict a species’ sleep habits accurately based on the animals’ risk of predation and their access to shelter.

Sleep Restores Our Bodies:
- ​​Sleep, particularly NREM, helps us restore our bodies and conserve energy.
- Sleep deprivation results in several negative physical consequences, including reduced immune system function, inability to heal, and the inhibition of adult neurogenesis in the hippocampus.
- Increased physical demands during the day correlate with a need for increased amounts of sleep the following night, reinforcing the role of NREM in the restoration of the body.

Conservation of energy is accomplished via:
- Decrease in body temperature of about 1-2 Celsius degrees in mammals.
- Decrease in muscle activity.
- Animals increase their sleep duration during food shortages, when energy conservation is especially important.

Hibernation: hamsters hibernate and other animals come out for a couple of hours everyday

Most human growth hormone (GH) is released during stages 3 and 4 NREM.
- In childhood, GH is primarily responsible for physical growth, but throughout life, it contributes to building muscle and bone mass and maintaining immune system function.
- The release of growth hormone during NREM peaks around the onset of puberty and begins to drop by age 21.

Question 49

Memories are Consolidated During Sleep

Learning during waking might be a simple matter of strengthening connections, whereas sleep-related memory processes might involve the reorganization of WHAT?

The day’s memories can be reactivated during WHAT SLEEP and redistributed from the WHERE circuits to the WHAT. - THE WHAT consolidate and memory stored into the WHAT but when think info from WHERE moves to WHERE for working memory and then when done go back to WHERE

Memories now stored in the WHAT cortex can then be strengthened during WHEN, which will make the memories easier to recall during waking

The amount of improvement varies from ?

Researchers recorded activity in the WHAT during learning, and then recorded from the same locations during sleep.

Patterns that occurred during sleep resembled those that occurred WHEN

The amount of WHAT activity during sleep correlated highly with the subsequent improvement in WHAT TASKS

Pruning is important bc WHY

What do these results suggest?

Answer 49

Learning during waking might be a simple matter of strengthening connections, whereas sleep-related memory processes might involve the reorganization of existing memory systems to accommodate new information.

The day’s memories can be reactivated during NREM and redistributed from the hippocampal circuits to the cerebral cortex. - hippocampus consolidate and memory stored into the cortex but when think info from cortex moves to hippocampus for working memory and then when done go back to cortex

Memories now stored in the cerebral cortex can then be strengthened during REM, which will make the memories easier to recall during waking

The amount of improvement varies from one study to another and from one type of learning task to another.
- Memorizing a foreign vocabulary list study
- Objects making sounds study

Researchers recorded activity in the hippocampus during learning, and then recorded from the same locations during sleep.

Patterns that occurred during sleep resembled those that occurred during learning.

The amount of hippocampal activity during sleep correlated highly with the subsequent improvement in performance on tasks.

Pruning is important bc dont need all memories we have ever had

What do these results suggest? The brain replays its daily experiences during sleep

Question 50

Sleep and Emotional Regulation

Correlations between disrupted sleep patterns and a variety of psychological disorders, especially WHAT TWO have led to the suggestion that sleep contributes to WHAT regulation.

Primarily through studies of sleep deprivation, sleep has been shown to play an important role in a person’s ability to WHAT

Answer 50

Correlations between disrupted sleep patterns and a variety of psychological disorders, especially depression and anxiety, have led to the suggestion that sleep contributes to emotional regulation.

Primarily through studies of sleep deprivation, sleep has been shown to play an important role in a person’s ability to identify an emotion as inappropriate and choose and implement an appropriate response

Question 51

The Possible Functions of Dreaming

Dreaming behavior occurs during both WHAT SLEEPS - dreams are more likely recorded in WHAT but can still dream in THE OTHER.

REM dreams are LIKE WHAT providing us with the sense of WHAT

NREM dreams are LIKE WHAT

Activation-synthesis theory: SAYS WHAT
- PGO waves(ARE WHAT) bombard the cortex randomly, memories and associations become activated.
- The forebrain attempts to impose WHAT

Evolutionary model:?

Threat simulation hypothesis:?

Answer 51

Dreaming behavior occurs during both REM sleep and NREM (non REM). - dreams are more likely recorded in REM and moring more time in REM so you remember them but can still dream in NREM.

REM dreams are lengthy, complicated, vivid, and story-like, providing us with the sense of firsthand experience with the events taking place.

NREM dreams are short episodes characterized by logical single images and a relative lack of emotion.

Activation-synthesis theory: dream content reflects ongoing neural activity
- PGO waves(in REM every single time have eye moments that correlate with PGO wave pons geniculate occipital lobe) bombard the cortex randomly, memories and associations become activated.
- The forebrain attempts to impose order on the resulting chaos in the form of dream content.

Evolutionary model: A theory suggesting that dreaming provides the advantage of consolidating memories during sleep rather than during waking. Awake energy goes to staying alive, eating, and memory but when awake can use energy to make memories.

Threat simulation hypothesis: A theory suggesting that dreams provide practice for dealing with threats. Blind people experience more nightmares and linked to fear threats like being hit by a car.

Question 52

Nightmare: ?

Sleep terrors: ?

Lucid dreaming: ?

WHICH IS WORSE TERROR OR NIGHTMARE?

Answer 52

Nightmare: A REM dream with disturbing content and occurs more in kids and those with PTSD. wakeup upset and scared when returning to sleep is often delayed by fear.

Sleep terrors: An NREM episode during the first three hours of sleep (NREM is more in the beginning and REM is morning end of sleep, that’s when nightmare) in which the individual is partially aroused, disoriented, frightened, and inconsolable. More common in kids than adults and is more blurry images. Wake up disoriented and confused. Less common

Lucid dreaming: Thoughtful dreaming; the dreamer is aware that he or she is dreaming and can manipulate the experience.

Sleep terror is worse wake up screaming and physical reaction

Question 53

Sleep -Wake Disorders:

Answer 53

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) identifies several conditions related to the initiation, maintenance, timing, and quality of sleep.

Question 54

Insomnia: ?

Onset insomnia: ?

Maintenance insomnia: ?

Medications prescribed for insomnia include ?

Sedatives DO WHAT?

One of the more common medications prescribed for insomnia is WHAT AND which acts as a ?

Use of WHAT has been associated with a number of troubling behaviors, including WHAT THREE?

Answer 54

Insomnia: The most common sleep–wake disorder is insomnia.

Onset insomnia: difficulty getting to sleep at bedtime

Maintenance insomnia: can not stay asleep

Medications prescribed for insomnia include benzodiazepines and other sedatives.

Sedatives speed up the onset of sleep by about 15 minutes and lengthen the night’s sleep by perhaps a half hour.

One of the more common medications prescribed for insomnia is zolpidem (Ambien), which acts as a GABA agonist, much like the benzodiazepines(anti anxiety xanax) - a lot of insomnia is happening bc of anxiety

Use of zolpidem has been associated with a number of troubling behaviors, including sleepwalking and binge eating or even driving while asleep.

Question 55

Narcolepsy: can not?

Narcolepsy consists of extreme levels of ?

In a sleep attack, narcolepts enter WHAT sleep immediately and awaken feeling refreshed.

Sleepiness soon returns with attacks occurring approximately WHEN?

Narcolepsy has four main symptoms: ????

Narcolepsy results from disruptions in the synthesis of WHAT?

Cells in the WHERE that normally secrete THIS are missing or damaged in the brains of patients with narcolepsy.

Answer 55

Narcolepsy: can not stay awake

Narcolepsy consists of extreme levels of daytime sleepiness and “sleep attacks,” in which aspects of REM sleep intrude into wakefulness.

In a sleep attack, narcolepts enter REM sleep immediately and awaken feeling refreshed.

Sleepiness soon returns with attacks occurring approximately every two to three hours.

Narcolepsy has four main symptoms: daytime sleepiness, cataplexy(brief bouts of muscle weakness or paralysis), hallucinations like are you awake or dreaming- sleep paralysis, hypogenic hallucinations so as your falling asleep

Narcolepsy results from disruptions in the synthesis of orexins(is for staying awake keeps you awake) or in their receptors found CSF. Have decreased orexins bc can not stay awake.

Cells in the hypothalamus that normally secrete orexins are missing or damaged in the brains of patients with narcolepsy.

Narcolepsy is the occurrence of “sleep attacks,” in which episodes and features of REM sleep occur during wakefulness. In a sleep attack, narcolepts enter REM sleep immediately and awaken feeling refreshed. Sleepiness soon returns with attacks occurring approximately every two to three hours.
* The person can not stay awake.
* Cataplexy is a feature of narcolepsy in which REM paralysis occurs during wakefulness like brief bouts of muscle weakness or paralysis.
* Many patients with narcolepsy also experience sleep paralysis which is muscle paralysis that either precedes sleep or lingers after awakening.
* Hypnagogic hallucinations happen as you’re falling asleep before sleep and hypnopompic hallucinations happen as you’re waking up awakening and they are REM dreaming phenomena.
* Narcolepsy results from disruptions in the synthesis of orexins (hypocretins) or their receptors.

Question 56

Breathing-Related Sleep Disorders

The breathing-related sleep disorders include obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea?

Central sleep apnea?

Answer 56

Obstructive sleep apnea hypopnea(reduction in air flow causing snoring - shallow low rate breathing - losing weight will help)

Central sleep apnea(absence of total air flow during sleep - breathing stops altogether).

Question 57

Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)

WHAT can play a major role in many cases of SIDS.

SIDS remains the most common WHAT?

Answer 57

Sleeping position can play a major role in many cases of SIDS.

SIDS remains the most common cause of death in the first six months of life in industrialized nations, yet its causes remain elusive.

Question 58

Sleep Talking and Sleepwalking

Sleep talking typically occurs in WHEN OF SLEEP?

Sleep talking is most common in WHO?

The talking person is often responsive to WHAT?

Sleepwalking runs in WHAT? MOST COMMON WITH WHO?

Answer 58

Sleep talking typically occurs in lighter stages of sleep of both REM and NREM.

Sleep talking is most common in young people and diminishes with age.

The talking person is often responsive to external stimuli.

Sleepwalking runs in families and occurs mostly in children.

Question 59

REM Sleep Behavior Disorder

In cataplexy, ???

In REM sleep behavior disorder, we see the absence of WHAT - this is when WHAT?

Answer 59

In cataplexy, we observed the intrusion of REM paralysis into the waking state.

In REM sleep behavior disorder, we see the absence of normal REM paralysis when it is supposed to occur. - this is when you are not paralysis when sleeping so act out your dreams like punching in the air so sleepwalking - you don’t know really know if you have this unless someone tells you

Question 60

Restless Legs Syndrome (RLS)

Restless legs syndrome (RLS): occurs when one of a person’s???

Periodic movement limb disorder - ????

Answer 60

Restless legs syndrome (RLS): occurs when one of a person’s limbs, usually a leg, experiences a sensation of tingling and moves at regular intervals of 15, 30, or 45 seconds.

Periodic movement limb disorder - movement of both arms and legs during sleep and they are unaware but patterns or ur parents will know typically caused by dopamine dysfunction