Bio 300 Exam 1 Questions Flashcards
The use of all levels of analysis to study the biological correlates of behavior is called _____.
Behavioral Neuroscience
The understanding of the nervous system has not been without its odd turns and dead ends. Which of the following is no longer accepted as valid?
Phrenology
Phrenology or craniology is a pseudoscience that involves the measurement of bumps on the skull to predict mental traits. It is based on the concept that the brain is the organ of the mind, and that certain brain areas have localized, specific functions or modules
Which researcher coined the term “synapse”?
Charles Sherrington
The naked eye can perceive objects that are at least _____mm in size.
0.2mm
Timika is in the lab studying the axons of neurons. Which method provides the least amount of magnification that she would need to get a clear image?
A light microscope
After the car accident, doctors were concerned that Allen had hit his head on the steering wheel. To check for an injury, Allen is most likely to be given a(n) ____ scan.
CT
In the United States, the Common Rule applies to:
Researchers supported by federal funding who study human participants
When conducting research with human subjects, what is one of the biggest drawbacks to relying on volunteer participation?
You might lose the ability to generalize to certain populations.
Which is not one of the “three Rs” of conducting animal research?
Refine methods to ensure humane treatment, reduce the number of animals used, reuse animals as many times as possible, replace the use of animals with other options
Imaging technology in which computers are used to enhance X-ray images
CT
Imaging technique that provides information regarding the localization of brain activity
PET
Imaging technique that provides very high resolution structural images
MRI
Technology using a series of high resolution images to assess the activity of the brain
FMRI
Scientific study of the brain and nervous system in health and in disease
Neuroscience
Behavioral neuroscience/biological psychology
Study of the bodily foundations of actions, emotions, and mental processes
Mind–body dualism
Philosophical perspective, put forth by Rene Descartes, that mental phenomena are, in some respects, non-physical
Monism
Philosophical perspective of the neurosciences in which the mind is viewed as the product of brain activity
Phrenology
Misguided effort to correlate character traits with bumps in the skull
Histology
Study of cells and tissues at the microscopic level
Microtome
Device used to make very thin slices of tissue for histology
Golgi Stain
Stain developed by Camillo Golgi used to observe single neurons
Nissl Stain
Stain used to view populations of cell bodies
Myelin Stain
Stain used to trace neural pathways
Horseradish Peroxidase
Stain used to trace axon pathways from their terminals to points of origin
Optical Imaging
Method for preparing a brain for examination that literally makes it transparent
Voxel
Smallest distinguishable box-shaped part of a three-dimensional image
Diffusion tensor Imaging (DTI)
Use of MRI technology to trace fiber pathways in the brain by tracking flow of water
EEG
Recording of the brain’s electrical activity through electrodes placed on the scalp
ERP
Technique used to correlate brain activity recorded through scalp electrodes with stimuli presented to participant
MEG
Technology for recording the magnetic output of the brain
Single cell recording
Measure of the activity of individual neurons through macroelectrodes implanted in the area of interest
rTMS
Technique used for temporarily changing brain activity immediately below the administered pulses
Optogenetics
technique that allows the activity of neurons to be controlled by light
Lesion
pathological or traumatic damage to tissue
Ablation
surgical removal of tissue
Microdialysis
technique for assessing the chemical composition of a very small area of the brain
Concordance rate
statistical probability that two cases will agree
The statistical probability that two cases will agree; usually used to predict the risk of an identical twin for developing a condition already diagnosed in his or her twin. A binary correlation so a yes or no where correlation is a spectrum.
yes or no question -
Heritability
amount that a trait varies in a population due to genetics
The amount that a trait varies in a population due to genetics. - really heritable: physiological characteristics like heart conditions and physical characteristics like hair color VS moderately heritable: intelligence VS less heritable: mood or anger
Genetic Screen
Method for correlating genotypes with phenotypes
Genetic screen- Methods for correlating genotypes(actual gene) with phenotypes(expressed).
Forward(phenotype and find necessarily gene) vs. reverse genetic(gene of interest multiplied and observed on phenotype) screens
Knockout genes
Knockout gene
gene used to replace a normal gene that doesn’t produce the protein product of the normal gene
Patterns of brain activity in response to the same stimulus tend to ____.
be consistent across individuals and cultures
Logan, who has an autism spectrum disorder, is participating in brain imaging research. If Logan were shown a word related to social interaction, what would you expect to see on his brain scan?
different patterns of activation in parts of the brain associated with the “self” when compared to individuals without autism
The scientific study of the brain and nervous system, in health and in disease, is known as_____.
Neuroscience
The idea that the body is mechanistic but the mind is nonphysical is called _____.
Dualism
Who is credited with the invention of the light microscope?
Anton van Leeuwenhoek
Which two famous scientists shared the 1906 Nobel Prize for their work on the makeup of the nervous system?
Camillo Golgi and Santiago Ramón y Cajal
Who is associated with the idea that the nervous system has a hierarchical organization?
John Hughlings Jackson
Which research method provides a way to observe the living brain as it engages in processes such as reading or emotional reactions?
FMRI
Malcom is in the lab studying the contents of synaptic vesicles of neurons. He has dehydrated the tissue to be studied and exposed them to special chemicals. What would be the best method to get a clear image?
An electron microscope
What is the purpose of a microtome?
Slicing tissue into thin sections
Kyung is in the lab studying a small number of single-cell bodies. What stain would be best for her to use if she wants to obtain a detailed view of the structures?
Golgi
Which researcher discovered X-rays and was the first to take an X-ray image?
wilhelm conrad röntgen
Veda, a neuroscientist, wants to do some imaging of participants memorizing picture cards. Because she doesn’t have access to an fMRI machine, what is the next best technique she could use to get information about brain activity during the card task?
PET
Which type of test uses powerful magnets to align hydrogen atoms within a magnetic field?
MRI
Donte has been having seizures and is undergoing a test in which electrodes have been placed on his scalp. What type of test is being performed?
EEG
Janay is studying brain activity in rats that have been exposed to cocaine and wants to determine whether the rate of action potentials changes when the rats are no longer receiving cocaine. Which method is she most likely to use?
Single Cell
Which method, which involves administering magnetic pulses to the brain through the scalp, shows promise in the treatment of motor diseases?
rTMS
In animal studies, deliberate lesions of the ventromedial hypothalamus resulted in the animals eating _____.
Significantly more than before the lesion
Which technique involves using implanted micropipettes to filter tiny amounts of extracellular fluid from the area of the brain surrounding the tips of the pipettes?
Microdialysis
Adriana is looking at the concordance rates for major mental disorders such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. What is she learning about?
The contribution of heredity to the disorders
Which of the following studies would be considered ethical today?
A study on cheating in which intro to psych students are told they can volunteer to participate in exchange for a few extra credit points
What do the three Rs of ethical animal research include?
Refinement of methods to make sure they are as humane as possible
Can neuroimaging methods decode what sentences a person is reading out of a set of sentences?
Yes, at a level that is reliably greater than chance.
The digestive system is made up of mostly ______ muscle whereas the heart is made up of _____ muscle.
Smooth, cardiac
In a resting muscle fiber, actin binding sites are covered by the protein ______.
Tropomyosin
Edward has been going to the gym to build muscle. Because he also studies physiology, he knows that for his muscles to increase in size, he must produce more ______.
Actin and myosin filaments
If Kim wants to bend her arm, she needs her _____ muscle to contract and her _____ muscle to relax.
Flexor, extensor
Deadra maintains a sitting posture at her desk during long hours of study. She is able to maintain this position thanks to her ______ pathways.
Ventromedial
What type of information does the cerebellum NOT provide to the motor cortex?
It does timing
Direction
Planning for a movement
Force needed for movement
Planning for a movement; it does timing, direction, and force needed for movement
A contagious virus that specifically targets and destroys spinal alpha motor neurons is called _____.
Polio
Why is L-dopa given as a treatment for Parkinson’s disease and not dopamine?
Bc L-dopa does not cross the BBB
When Jim was 58 years old, he started experiencing involuntary, jerky movements. A few months later, he began having depression and hallucinations. Once his doctors conducted genetic tests, he was diagnosed with _____.
Huntingtons
Muscle found in the lining of the digestive tract, within arteries, and in the reproductive system
Smooth muscles
Muscle that is attached to bones and is responsible for the majority of body movements.
Skeletal muscles
Muscle responsible for keeping the heart beating
Cardiac muscle
Cardiac muscle
type of striated muscle found in the heart.
Twitch
Contraction of a single muscle fiber
Myofibril
long strand of protein that is responsible for contraction
Actin
protein that makes up the thin filaments of a long fiber strand
Myosin
protein that makes up the thick filaments of a long fiber strand
slow-twitch fiber
muscle unit that contracts slowly using aerobic metabolism; primarily responsible for movement requiring endurance
fast-twitch fiber
muscle unit that contracts rapidly; primarily responsible for movement requiring explosive strength
alpha motor neuron
spinal nerve cell directly responsible for signaling a muscle fiber to contract
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
disease in which motor neurons of the spinal cord and brainstem deteriorate, leading to death
neuromuscular junction
location where an action potential can produce a contraction
intrafusal muscle fiber
skeletal unit that makes up a muscle spindle
Extrafusal muscle fiber
skeletal unit outside the muscle spindle that is responsible for contracting the muscle
Ia sensory fiber
large sensory axon that connects a muscle spindle to neurons in the spinal cord
myotatic reflex
contraction of a muscle in response to sensory information about its having been stretched
monosynaptic reflex
spinal action that occurs without thought, that requires the action of only one synapse
gamma (γ) motor neuron
small spinal nerve cell that innervates the muscle spindles
Golgi tendon organ
structure that provides information about muscle contraction
Ib sensory fiber
axon that forms synapses with spinal interneurons
polysynaptic reflex
spinal action that occurs without thought that requires interaction at more than one synapse
Extensor
muscle that acts to straighten a joint
Flexor
muscle that acts to bend a joint
Flexor reflex
automatic withdrawal of a limb from a painful stimulus
lateral pathway
large collection of axons that controls voluntary movements
ventromedial pathway
route carrying commands for subconscious, automatic movements of the neck and torso
supplementary motor area (SMA)
part of the brain involved with managing complex sequences of movement
mirror neuron
special motor nerve cell that responds whether that motion is performed or simply observed
myasthenia gravis
autoimmune condition resulting in muscle weakness and fatigue
muscular dystrophy
group of diseases characterized by extreme muscle development followed by muscle wasting
Polio
contagious viral disease that attacks the spinal motor neurons, producing paralysis
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS)
disease in which motor neurons of the spinal cord, brainstem, and motor cortex progressively deteriorate, leading to death
Parkinson’s disease
degenerative disease characterized by difficulty in moving, muscular tremors, and frozen facial expressions
Huntington’s disease
fatal genetic disorder beginning in middle age that causes the breakdown of nerve cells
Al is lifting weights at the gym. What kinds of muscles are likely to grow as a result of his efforts?
Skeletal striated
Muscle fiber membranes contain receptors for the neurotransmitter ____.
ACH
During muscle contraction, myosin binds with _____.
Actin
Sondra is an elite runner who is currently training for a 50-mile ultramarathon. As an endurance athlete, her muscles are likely to be _____.
Predominantly slow-twitch
Given what is known about age-related effects on muscle mass, what is the best suggestion for an elderly patient?
Exercise in small amounts daily, including lifting weights
The large, myelinated motor neurons directly responsible for the voluntary contracting of muscles are called _____.
Aplha motor
After she cut her foot on a rusty nail, Lillia’s doctor was concerned she might develop tetanus, a disease that could have caused her muscles to _____.
Contract and lock in a contracted state
Jermaine handed Renna a heavy book. Renna was able to compensate for the weight and not drop the book. What type of reflex is involved in Renna’s reaction to the weight?
Myotatic
To keep from being hurt by lifting too much weight, the body has a number of feedback systems in place. What responds to the degree of muscle contraction, or force, and acts as a brake against excessively vigorous contraction?
Golgi tendon organs
Etta is cheering for her favorite team. When they score, she bends her arm to give a “high five” to a friend. To do this motion, she needs ____.
Both extensor and flexor muscles
Doris just accidentally touched a hot pan with her finger. She quickly pulled her finger away thanks to a ______.
Flexor reflex
Bethany is tapping her foot along with the beat of the music. She is able to do this because of the _____.
Ventromedial pathway
A person who has consumed too much alcohol will start to exhibit a lack of balance and coordination due to inhibition of the ____.
Cerebellum
The basal ganglia may be thought of as acting as _____.
A filter for intentional activity
The rhythms associated with walking seem to be spontaneously generated in the _____.
spinal cord
____ are active both while Jeremiah is preparing to shoot a free throw on the basketball court as well as while he is watching his teammate shoot a free throw.
Mirror neurons
What happens when the neurotoxin sarin gas inhibits acetylcholinesterase?
Muscles including the diaphragm are continuously stimulated leading to respiratory failure
The immediate cause of Parkinson’s disease is gradual loss of neurons in the ____.
Substantia nigra
Corina’s immune system produces antibodies that bind to the nicotinic ACh receptor and degenerates them, eventually leading to extreme muscle weakness and fatigue. Corina has most likely been diagnosed with _____.
MG
Cole was diagnosed with a genetic disorder that produces involuntary, jerking movements and, in its later stages, neuropsychiatric symptoms like hallucinations and delusions. Cole has most likely been diagnosed with _____.
Huntingtons
Deedee has been taking calcium supplements to support bone health. She is taking advantage of her body’s _____, meaning that if she can get her blood calcium level above 0.16 g/L, she knows that the excess calcium will be stored in her bones.
Set point
Chris has been working outside on a hot, summer day. His coworker gets concerned because Chris has stopped sweating and is acting confused and faint. At the hospital, Chris is diagnosed with _____.
Hyperthermia
Sid is slightly dehydrated. Until he is able to drink water, his body will release ______, which will _____.
vasopressin; reduce urine production
Antonio had to work a double shift today and decided not to eat his lunch so he could leave early. As a result, his body likely released ____ so that he could maintain glucose levels.
Glucagon
Leptin and insulin communicate with neurons in the _____.
arcuate nucleus; hypothalamus
Noreen has tried to go on diets before. While she does lose some weight, she is never able to maintain the weight loss and regains all the weight. For the weight loss to last, her doctors would suggest that she try _____.
small, permanent changes to dietary and exercise habits
Catalina really loves chocolate and hasn’t had any in several days. At this point she really wants chocolate and is highly motivated to go buy some. Which of her brain regions are likely active?
the ventral tegmentum of the midbrain, the striatum, and prefrontal cortex
Dopamine is the main neurochemical for reward, but it isn’t the only one. New research has shown that rats will stimulate themselves (via ICSS) in the raphe nucleus for a burst of _____.
Serotonin
Meredith has been given the choice of $10 right now or $100 next week. If everything is functioning properly, she will ______.
wait and get $100 next week
Anorexia nervosa
eating disorder characterized by voluntary self-starvation and a grossly distorted body image
Bulimia nervosa
eating disorder characterized by cycles of binging and purging
Binge eating disorder
eating disorder characterized by binging without purging
Homeostasis
physiological state of equilibrium or balance
Set point
value that is defended by regulatory systems, such as core temperature or body weight
Motivation
process of activating and directing behavior
Endotherm
animal that can use internal methods, such as perspiration or shivering, to maintain body temperature
Ectotherm
animal that relies on external methods for maintaining body temperature
Hyperthermia
life-threatening condition in which core body temperature increases beyond normal limits in an uncontrolled manner
Hypothermia
potentially fatal core body temperature below 31°C/87.8°F
preoptic area (POA)
part of the hypothalamus involved in a number of regulatory functions
Osmosis
movement of water to equalize concentration on two sides of a membrane
osmotic thirst
craving for water produced by cellular dehydration
hypovolemic thirst
craving for water that results from a decrease in the volume of the extracellular fluid
diabetes mellitus
disease characterized by insulin deficiency, resulting in hunger and excess sugar in blood and urine
organum vasculosum of the lamina terminalis (OVLT)
area located around the third ventricle in the brain that detects cellular dehydration
Baroreceptor
sensor in the heart and kidneys that measures blood pressure
antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
hormone that promotes fluid retention by signaling kidneys to reduce urine production
angiotensin II
hormone that constricts blood vessels to maintain blood pressure
Aldosterone
hormone that signals the kidneys to retain sodium
subfornical organ (SFO)
brain area located near the junction of the two lateral ventricles that regulates drinking
median preoptic nucleus
area of the hypothalamus that is involved with drinking behavior
nucleus of the solitary tract (NST)
structure in the medulla that processes information from taste receptors
zona incerta
area of the midbrain that participates in the initiation of drinking behavior
Hyponatremia
life-threatening condition in which both extracellular fluid levels and sodium concentrations in the extracellular fluid are too low
cholecystokinin (CCK)
gut hormone released in response to the consumption of fats and signals satiety
Insulin
pancreatic hormone that facilitates the movement of sugars from the blood supply into tissues
Leptin
substance secreted by fat cells that helps the body regulate its fat stores
paraventricular nucleus (PVN)
portion of the hypothalamus involved with the regulation of hunger
Ghrelin
hormone produced in the pancreas and in the stomach that stimulates feeding behavior
Orexin
peptide neurochemical produced in the lateral hypothalamus that stimulates eating
Satiety
sensation of being full, cessation of eating
alpha melanocyte stimulating hormone (αMSH)
neurochemical originating in the arcuate nucleus, believed to inhibit feeding behavior
body mass index (BMI)
measure comparing height and weight that is used to determine healthy/unhealthy weight ranges
Based on the data you collected, which hormones appeared to increase appetite compared to the saline control condition?
NPY and ghrelin
Based on your data, which of the hormones appeared to suppress appetite compared to the saline control condition?
leptin and cck
Based on your data, which of the hormones produced the largest overall change in feeding (increase or decrease) compared to the saline control condition?
NPY
You have been hired by a pharmaceutical company to develop a hormone-based weight loss medication. Assuming you could work out any safety issues, which of the hormones in your experiment would be most promising for this purpose?
CCK
Which system is most like the thermostat in a home, which switches on the heat or air conditioner when the temperature falls below or above a set point?
Homeostasis
Who has an ectotherm for a pet?
Iguana
Shavon is sitting in a cold classroom. How might her body respond to the chill?
Constriction of surface blood vessels
Which phenomenon is helpful in fighting disease?
Fever
Josie took her dog for a walk on a hot summer day. Josie began to sweat, and her dog began to pant. Which brain structure is involved in both sweating and panting in response to heat?
Hypothalamus
bout two-thirds of the body’s water is stored as _____.
Intracellular fluid
The movement of water to equalize concentration on two sides of a membrane is called _____.
Osmosis
Most of the time, humans drink ____.
More water than is needed
Who is likely to develop osmotic thirst?
Person who is eating really salty chips
When blood volume drops, the body acts to conserve fluids, and the kidneys release the enzyme ____.
Renin
The hormone cholecystokinin is released when large quantities of which nutrients are consumed?
Fat
Deetta has uncontrolled type 1 diabetes. She may lose weight because _____.
Glucose can neither enter her cells to be used for energy nor be stored in her body as fat
Although early research suggested that a particular part of the hypothalamus served as a hunger center, subsequent research suggests it functions to initiate eating. What part of the hypothalamus is it?
Lateral
Which substance is produced and secreted by fat cells and acts as a signal to the brain about fat reserves, providing a long-term indicator of overeating or undereating?
Leptin
Although early research suggested that a particular part of the hypothalamus served as a satiety center, subsequent research suggests it functions to change the set point for weight. What part of the hypothalamus is it?
Ventromedial
Rona has a BMI of 16 although she views herself as overweight. She is constantly exercising and restricts herself to one, very small meal or less a day. Rona’s symptoms are most consistent with _____.
Anorexia
What did Routtenberg and Lindy (1965) find in their study on intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS)?
That ICSS can be much more rewarding than food
What brain structure is associated with the “wanting” component of reward?
The medial forebrain bundle
Many addictive substances are agonists for _____.
Dopamine
Professor Albin is working on an experiment in his lab where his rats have lesions to the OFC. He hypothesizes that when it comes to getting rewards, the rats will ____.
Chose smaller immediate rewards
What does interdisciplinary mean?
collaboration between experts from different areas to combine their expertise and perspectives for a more comprehensive understanding or solution.
What is behavioral neuroscience?
Reciprocal relationship between bio and behavior
reciprocal : means influence each other like heba and tina
Ex: ice cream wrapping
TRUE / FALSE : the body depends on the physical aspect only
false, it’s also impacted by how you think
What did the prehistoric ancestors believe and what was their evidence?
Believed that brain is vital to life
Evidence: trepanation
What is trepanation?
When the skull shows signs of healing
of the brain
What did Descartes believe in?
Believed that the soul is separate from the body (DUALISM)
His belief raised the mind-body/ brain problem
What is the mind-body/brain problem?
The problem of how physical substances (brain) can give rise to our sensation, thoughts and emotions (our mind)
What were the neuroscientists’ beliefs on the mind-body/brain problem?
They believe that the brain is the director of all thoughts and feelings (MONISM)
What is localization?
Different parts of the brain perform different functions (behaviors and processes)
What was Franz Joseph GALL theory?
He believed in Phrenology
Definition: different parts of the brain are like a muscle the more you use them they grow
What is the correlation with the advancement of neuroscience and technology?
As neuroscience filed advanced more the technology became more advanced
What is the microscopic method?
Its a fixed (stained) tissue sliced by a microtome
Allows us to observe structures, organization and connections of individual cells that we cant see with the naked eye
Why do researchers use different stains ?
Because different stains allow them to view different features
List the 5 stains used in microscopic methods
Golgi stain
Nissl stain
Myelin stain
Horseradish peroxidase
Optical imaging
What does the golgi stain allow us to observe?
It stains some but not all neurons so you can observes single neurons better
Ex: black and white headphones
What does the nissl stain allow us to observe?
Allows us to see what type of cell is where in the brain
Ex: we can see big/ little neurons in different sheets in the cortex sheets
What does myelin stain do?
Stains myelin
What does horseradish peroxidase stain?
Stains neural pathways
What is optical imaging?
way to look inside the body using light, we can see through the brain
Which method is better imaging or microscopic and why?
Imaging methods are better because we can see living tissue and some studies require things only woke animals can do
What are the imaging methods?
CT
PET
MRI
fMRI
DTI
What are the advantages and disadvantages of PET image?
Disadvantage:
does not provide detail about structure
Expensive
Injection of radioactive substances
Advantages
Localizes brain activity
How does MRI work?
It uses magnesium and radio frequency waves to provide high resolution images of structure
voxel
What are the advantages and disadvantages of MRI image?
Advantages:
High resolution images of structure (3d)
The higher the resolution the lower the pixel
Disadvantages:
More expensive than CT
Has larger magnets that may affect the body
How does fMRI work?
Hemoglobin & oxygen react to a different magnetic field than hemoglobin alone. When a part of the brain is active it uses more blood so theres more blood flow and fMRI captures that
What are the advantages and disadvantages of fMRI?
Advantages:
Good with spatial
Disadvantages
Interpreting results is complex
Bad with temporal
Because when cells are firing blood flows slow and we don’t know in when or which order cells fire
What is DTI image?
technique used to visualize and analyze the diffusion of water molecules in brain
Used to trach pathways
Can tell us what areas are correlated with each other
What are some methods used to record brains electrical and magnetic output?
EEG
ERP
MEG
Single cell recording
Why are recording methods better than an autopsy?
Because during the recording you are alive
TRUE / FALSE : Any electrical current can turn to magnetic current
true
What does an EEG record?
Records electrical activity of the brain through electrodes
The output is amplified and recorded
Good for sleep recording
What are the advantages and disadvantages of an EEG?
Advantages:
Good at temporal (timing)
Disadvantages:
Bad with spatial because the electrode has to go through a lot of layers to reach the brain activity
What is Event-related potentials (ERPs)
Characteristic wave to specific item or object
What are the advantages and disadvantages of MEG?
ITS SIMILAR TO EEG BUT THIS MEASURES MAGNETIC
Advantages:
Has excellent resolution
Its silent so we can use it for studying brain response to sound
Disadvantages:
Weak signals from environment can interfere
What are the advantages and disadvantages of single-cell recording?
Advantages
Good with spatial, can know exact cell thats firing
Disadvantages
Very invasive
How do surgically implanted electrodes work?
A current is applied through a surgically implanted microelectrode
Resulting behaviors can be correlated with the location of stimulation
Treatment in movement and psychological disorders
What is rTMS?
We can excite and temporarily deactivate a certain area of the brain by the area that is stimulated and the strength of magnetism used
Disadvantage: can’t go to deeper structures like thalamus
What is optogenetic?
Using light to control the behavior of cells
We can use diff lights to stimulate or inactivate
Disadvantage: invasive
What is a lesion?
Injury to neural tissue
Naturally occurring
Deliberately produced
What is an ablation?
Removal of neural tissue
What is microdialysis?
Remove fluid from certain areas to see what that fluid is made of and what chemicals are present
What is a concordance rate?
The likelihood that 2 cases will agree
What is heritability?
The amount that a trait varies in a population due to genetics
What is genetic screening?
Methods for correlating genotypes with phenotypes
Genotype: actual gene 5,9
Phenotype: what’s expresses actual 5,3
What is a knockout gene?
Getting rid of a gene
What are the 3 Rs of animal research?
reduce , replace, refine
What are the guidelines for animal research?
Animal research should have clear scientific purpose
Excellent care and housing should be provided
Experimental procedure should cause as little pain and distress as possible
Would internal processing be important without the ability to move?
No it would be useless because the purpose of the brain is to behave and move and if we don’t move its not needed
What are the 3 types of muscle?
Skeletal
Cardiac
Smooth
What is skeletal muscle composed of?
Muscle fiber thats directed by motor neuron
The muscle fiber membrane contains receptor sites for what?
ACH
What’s a twitch?
When each AP produces a single contraction
What are the 2 types of fibers?
Slow twitch fibers
Fast twitch fibers
What are slow twitch fibers?
Aerobic metabolism requires oxygen
Endurance activities
What are fast twitch fibers?
2 types
Type IIa fibers: fast twitch, fatigue resistant
Type IIb fibers: fast twitch, fatigable fibers
Anaerobic metabolism: occurs in the absence of oxygen
Explosive powerful movements
How does exercise build muscle?
Muscle fibers are damaged
They are rebuilt bigger & stronger by using more actin and myosin filaments
What changes does lack of activity produce?
Space travel: loss of muscle mass
Spinal cord injury: increase in fast twitch, decrease in slow twitch
At what age does muscle mass begins to decline?
Age 25
Muscle mass diminishes to about 50% of age 25 levels by age 80
Selective atrophy of type 2 fibers
Age related changes also occur i the neuron that control muscles
What is contraction of skeletal muscle controlled by?
Controlled by motor neurons in the spinal cord or the nuclei of the cranial nerves (cranial nerves go directly to brain instead of passing spine then brain)
TRUE/FALSE: motor neurons are evenly distributed throughout the spinal cord
False
The lumbar enlargement is bigger than cervical enlargement due to greater # of neurons that go to hands and legs
What is the main role of alpha motor neurons?
Rapid signaling from NS to muscle
The alpha motor neurons form highly efficient connections with muscle fibers at what location?
Neuromuscular junction
What does a motor unit consist of?
single alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates
TRUE/FALSE: each muscle fiber receives info from ONE AXON, but a single axon may innervate MANY MUSCLE FIBERS
true
What are motor neuron pools?
The collection of motor neurons that innervates a single muscle.
We need all neurons for certain single muscle
What are the 3 types of neurons required to respond appropriately?
Neurons from muscle spindle & golgi tendon organs
Neurons of the brainstem & motor cortex
Spinal interneuron
What’s the purpose of a muscle spindle?
Its embedded in the muscle that serves as a source of information about muscle length
Lies parallel to extrafusal fibers, so when it stretches so do its associated spindles
In short terms it’s a sensory structure that gives feedback
What is a myotatic reflex and an example?
Contraction in response to sensing stretch
It’s a spinal reflex
An example is the patellar tendon or knee-jerk reflex.
What is the purpose of feedback from golgi tendon organs
feedback regarding the degree of muscle contraction, or force
Senses what goes in in the muscle to prevent damage
What is the monosynaptic reflex?
Reflex that requires the interaction of only 2 neurons at a single synapse
Myotatic reflexes
What is the polysynaptic reflex?
Involves more than one synapse
Maintains posture
Prevent injury
Coordinate movement of limbs
What is meant by antagonistic muscles?
Muscle pairs that perform opposite action
Those muscle pairs work together
What are flexors?
muscles that bend joints
Toward
What are extensors?
Muscles that straighten joints
Away
What is reciprocal inhibition?
prevents the simultaneous contraction of flexors and extensors serving the same joint.
When you send one message to contract another message is sent for muscle to relax
TRUE/FALSE: each joint has at least one pair of antagonistic muscles, one flexor and one extensor
true
What is the flexor reflex?
A polysynaptic spinal reflex that produces withdrawal of a limb from a painful stimulus
