bio 2 exam Flashcards
Describe Sars-cov-II pathophysiology
Spiked protein bonds with Ace 2 receptor in our aveoli. This allows for the virus to enter the cell, which is called a type 2 monocite, and translate/ replicate itself using that cell’s ribosomes.
describe how Covid-19 mRNA vaccines work
small pieces of the virus’s mRNA are encased within phospho lipids and are injected into our cells. there, the mRNA uses our cell’s ribosomes to translate only the spiked protein our immunes system discover these foreign protein and produce spike protein that will bond to both them and to real Ace 2 that connected to an actual Sars-CoV-11 vision, inhibiting it form entering our cells and replicating.
how many total mutation has the Omicron variant acquitted since its divergence from the B.1.1. lineage?
Around 50
What is the specific are called on the spike protein that both binds the virus to our ACE-2 receptors, allowing entry into the cells, and is recognized by out immune system so the antibodies will bind to it, inhibiting entry into the cell?
RBD receptor binding domain
how many mutation are found in this specific area in delta?
RBD- 2
How many mutations are found in this specific area in omicron?
RBD 10
What is the one of the only viruses that might transmissibility similar to omicron?
measles
what is the main reason omicron symptoms appear less severe than delta?
because it is in the upper respiratory rather than deep within lung tissue
What are the three key observations about life illustrated by organism such as this self-decorating caterpillar?
- the striking ways in which organisms are suited for their life in their environment
- the many characteristic of life
- the rich diversity of life
Describe evolution in only three words
descent with modification
Evolution can be viewed as both a —- and a ——
pattern/ process
Aristotle viewed species as –
fixed and unchanged
what did paleontologist George Cuvier notice about fossils from older strata?
The older the strata the more unlike the fossils are
Name the two geologist that proposed that earth’s geologic features could be explained by gradual mechanisms that are operating today as they were in the past
James Hulton and Charles Lyell
Darwin agreed that if geologic change results from slow, continuous action rather than from sudden events, then the earth must be—
Much older than the widely accepted age of a few thousand years
who was the first person to propose a mechanism for how life changes over tike through evolution?
La Marck
What were the two widely accepted principles, ar the time, housed to explain his findings?
Use and disuse and the inheritance of characteristics
Describe the now debunked hypothesis he had about giraffes
By reaching toward the the food source, it made pass the source through his offspring
Define natural selection
A process in which individuals that have certain inheritance traits tend to survive and pass those traits to their offspring
Define artificial selection
The process which humans have been using to modify
observation#1: members of population often — in their —
vary / inherited traits
Observation #2: all species can produce more - than their - can support, and many of those offspring fail to - and –
Offspring/ environment/ survive ./ reproduce
Inference #1 individuals whose inherited traits Gove them a — surviving and reproducing in a given environment tend to leave behind — offsprings than other individuals
Higher probability / more
Inference #2 this – ability of individuals to –and – will lead to the accumulation of favorable traits in the population over generations
Unequal/ Survive / Reproduce
Who was the economist that helped Darwin see that the capacity to “overproduce” was characteristic of all species?
Thomas Malthus
Finish this thought. Darwin reasoned that did artificial selection can bring about dramatic change in relatively short period of time, then natural selections -
substantial modification of species over many hundreds of generations
Correct the mist common misunderstanding about evolution
Individuals do not evolve is the population in years of generations
Name and discuss the four pieces of evidence we have that support the theory of evolution by natural selection
- Direct observation- Biologist have documented a lot of evolutionary change for years
- Homology- similarities from common ancestors
- the fossil record- the fossil record shows that past organisms differed from present day organisms
- Biogeography-the scientific study of the geographic distribution of species
Describe the difference in the word “theory” from its meaning in everyday use to its scientific meaning.
Its a model that correlates data and its testable
what do we know about the theory of evolution by natural selection that we didn’t know during Darwin’s time?
Natural selection us not the only source to evolution
What makes evolution possible?
Genetic variation makes evolution possible
punnet square
How many gene loci does it require to influence the phonetype characters presented in an organism?
1 or many
why are many of the genetics variations exhibited in the mRNA not going to result in phenotype variation?
Many differ occur within introns
what do the formation of new allele, the altering of gene number or position, rapid reproductions, and sexual reproduction all have in common?
They are all sources of genetic generations.
what is a group od individuals od the same species that live in the same area and interbreed, producing fertile offsprings?
Population
What consists of all the copies of every type of allele of every locks in all members of a population?
Gene pool
A population at Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium is said to be -
Not evolving at that locus
Name the five conditions for Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium
- no mutation
- random mating
- extremely large populations
- no natural selection
- no gene flow
If only one of these above conditions does not hold, then the population -
evolving
Name and discuss the three mechanism that alter allele frequencies directly and cause the most evolutionary change
- natural selection
- genetic drift - founder effect - bottle neck effect
- gene flow
what is the form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates?
Sexual selections
This can lead to sexual dimorphism. what does that mean?
A different in secondary sexual
what is the form of natural selection where individuals of one sex are choosy in selecting their mates from the others, also called mate choice?
Intersexual selection
What is the form of natural selection where individuals of ones compete directly for mates if the opposite sex?
Intrasexual selection
What is it called when indic=viduals who are heterozygous at a particular locus have a greater fitness than do both kinds of homozygotes?
Heterozygotes Advantage
Describe ab example of this using this image
AA- Subsceptible to material but no sickle cell disease
Aa- Resistant to Malaria and only mild sickle cell disease
aa-resistant to malaria but has fatal sickle cell disease
What is microevolution?
a change in allele frequencies in a population over time
What is macroevolution?
the evolution in taxonomic groups over long period of times
what states that a species is a group of population whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring?
Biological species concept
Reproductive isolation can be classified by whether barriers act –or — fertilization. what are these two classification?
Before/ After Prezygotic and postzygotic
two species encounter each other rarely, or not all, because they occupy different habitats, even though not isolated by physical barriers=
Habitat Isolation
species that breed at different times of day, different season or different years=
Temporal Isolation
Courtship rituals and other behaviors unique to a species are effective Barriers=
Behavioral isolation
Morphological differences prevent successful mating=
Mechanical Isolation
Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize eggs of another species
Gametic isolation
What are the last three post-zygotic barriers?
Reduce hybrid viability
Reduce hybrid fertility
Hybrid breakdown
During allopatric speciation, a population forms a new species while-
Geographic seperation
During sympatric speciation, a subset of a population forms a new species without
Reduced between groups that remain in contact
describe an example allopatric speciation
Pistol shrimp
During sympatric speciation, what are the three factors that reduce gene flows between groups that remain in contact?
Polyploidy, Habitat different, and sexual selection
Many important crops are-
polyploidy
The fossil record includes many examples of species that appear suddenly, persist unchanged for sometime, and then apparently disappear. these periods of apparent stasis punctuated by sudden change are called
Punctuated equilibrium
When closely related species meet in a hybrid zone, what are the three possible outcomes?
Reinforcement stability fusion
label the sequence of stage
Packaging of molecules into protocells 3
abiotic synthesis if small organic molecules 1
origin of self replication molecules 4
joining of the small organic molecules 2
how long ago was the earth formed?
4.6 billions years ago
What are four credible situations in which the first organic molecules might have been synthesized?
Miller and uvey reducing atmosphere, animo acid in meteorites
What was likely the firs genetic material?
RNA
What is a ribozyme?
RNA that behaves like an enzyme
Describe an instance where RNA can make DNA through reverse transcription
How can we determine the absolute age if fossils?
Radiometric dating
What is the time required for half of a parent isotope to decay to a daughter isotope called ?
Half life
What element can be used to date fossils up to 60,000 years old?
Carbon
What are some of the elements used to date older material?
Potassium, rubidium, uranium
The first three eons (precambrian)-the hadean, the Achaean, and the Proterozoic- together lasted about
4 billion years
What is the last eon called, roughly the last half billion years that encompasses eukaryotic, multicellular life?
Phaherozoic
What are the oldest known fossils and how old are they?
Stromatolites , 3.5 billion years
how long ago do the oldest eukaryotic cell fossils date back to?
1.8 millions
what does the endosymbiotic theory propose?
Mitochondria and plastids were former small prokaryotes living within larger host cells
endosymbiotic theory
The earth’s crust is made up of tectonic plates that move slowly through what process?
Contental drift
What likely caused the Permian extinction that wiped out about 96% of marine animal species?
Intense volcanism in what is how Siberia
What caused the cretaceous mass extinction about 65 million years ago?
meteorite
What is the evolution of diversely adapted species from a common ancestor called?
Adaptive radiation
Describe two example of this type of evolution
Darwin finders
Adaptive radiation of mammels
