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BIO 15-20 (smart classmates) Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

What are the 4 key characteristics of Chordates?

A

1) There is a presence of notochord
2)The nerve cord runs parallel with the notochord and gut, anterior end develops into the brain
3)Gill slits penetrate the wall of a pharynx (at least at some point in embryological development)
4) Tail extends past the anus (at least at some point of their development)

*** All of these features are present is chordate embryos

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2
Q

Do all vertebrata have vertebrates?

A

NO

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3
Q

What are 2 basic characteristics of Chordates?

A

They are coelomate and demonstrate bilateral symmetry.

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4
Q

What is the Notochord?

A

It is a rod of stiffened, but flexible, tissue that helps support the body.

The notochord also later develops into the vertebral column

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5
Q

What are some characteristics of the bodily systems of chordates?

A

They have a defined central nervous system
-The pharynx moves from a digestive tract to a respiratory organ

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6
Q

What are the 3 major sub-phyla of chordates?

A

1) Urochordata (invertebrates)
2) Cephalochordata (invertebrates)
3) Vetebrata

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7
Q

What is a distinguishing characteristics of the vetebrata?

A

The vertebral column evolves from primitive notochord, composed on individual vertebral bones and are separated by disks (ligaments)

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8
Q

What is the common name for Urochordata?

A

They are known as sea squirts or tunicates.

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9
Q

What are the characteristics of Urochordata?

A

-Is the most ancestral sub-phylum of chordates.
-They begin as bilateral larvae swimmers
-Adults display evolutionary reversals
-They have a jellylike tunic around the pharynx
-Most are a few centimeters long
-Live in a variety of aquatic habitats
-Are filter feeders and have an incurrent and outcurrent siphon, gill slits
-The pharynx is a respiratory organ as well
-Gas exchange is done through diffusion

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10
Q

What are some reversals that we see in adult Urochordates?

A

-Their tail is reabsorbed
-They take on more of a radial symmetry
-Their nerve cord is absorbed into their body
-They gather oxygen through diffusion
-Have a basic circulatory system

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11
Q

What is the tunicate?

A

The larva form of urochordates

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12
Q

What are the characteristics of Cephalochordata?

A

-Closets relatives to Vertebrata
-Only 3-7 cm long
-Body display all chordate features throughout their life
-Have a head and a simple brains with neurons
-Have segmented muscles
-Are filter feeders
-Nerve cord sits dorsal to the notocord
-Tail is used for balance

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13
Q

What are some major body characteristics of Cephalochordata?

A

-Have an eyespot
-Tentacle like structures around the mouth
-Dorsal tubular nerve cord
-Notocord
-Pharynx with gill slits
-tail extending past anus

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14
Q

What are the myomeres?

A

They are each segmented muslce

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15
Q

What are the characteristics of Vertebrata?

A

-Pharynx completely shifts to gas exchange
-Accessory digestive organs such as the liver and pancreas
-Have chambered hearts
-Have tripartite brain
-Have advanced sensory structures (increased cephalization)
-Have an affinity for oxygen in red blood cells (hemoglobin)
-Have kidneys
-Have an endocrine system

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16
Q

What does tripartite brain mean?

A

That the brain have a forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain

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17
Q

What is the purpose of the liver in vertebrata?

A

It secretes bile and metabolizes protein, fats, and other substances

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18
Q

What is the purpose of the pancreas?

A

It regulates sugar levels in the blood

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19
Q

Define emulsification

A

The process in which large lipid globules are broken down into smaller lipid globules.

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20
Q

What classes fall under the sub phylum Vertebrata?

A

Myxini (Hagfish)
Petromyzontida (lamprey)

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21
Q

What is the ancestral state of hearts?

A

Having 2 chambers

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22
Q

What is the derived state of hearts?

A

Having 4 chambers (Birds and mammals have 4 heart chambers)

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23
Q

Excretory system

A

Is made of individual units known as nephrons that filter the blood and get rid of waste (bladder and kidneys included)

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24
Q

hat is a unique characteristics of Myxini?

A

They are the most ancestral class within the vertebrata and their new characteristic is that they have a cranium

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25
Q

What is the earliest cranium made out of?

A

Cartilage

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26
Q

What are the characteristics of Myxini?

A

-Known as hagfish
-Do not have a true vertebral column
-First group with a cranium
-Cartilage protects their brain (no bone yet)
-Nearly blind
-Finds found through sensory tentacles
-Are relatively sessile and have low metabolic rates

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27
Q

Define the cranium

A

It is a hardened structure made out of cartilage that protects the brain.

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28
Q

What is the defense mechanism of hagfish?

A

They excrete a thick slime into the environment that basically clogs the gills of its predators which causes them to suffocate and die.

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28
Q

What is a new characteristic found in Petromyzontida?

A

Their new characteristic is that they have a true vertebral column

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29
Q

What are the characteristics of Petromyzontida (lampreys)?

A

Become distinct due to the presence of a vertebrate (First true vertebrates)
-Are jawless
-Are parasitic
-Have a small cerebellum
-Have sensory structures such as eyes well, two-pairs of semicircular canals
-Well established in great lakes
-Defined CNS

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30
Q

What is the purpose of the cerebellum?

A

Responsible for balance and equillibrium

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31
Q

What are ammocoetes?

A

he larvae of petromyzontida (hagfish)

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32
Q

What is the life cycle of hagfish?

A

-M/F hagfish seek out riffle areas and create a crescent shaped nests with gravel and small stones
-They place their fertilized eggs among the gravel which hatch a few weeks later
-Larvae emerge from the nests and drift downstream.
-These larvae will burrow into silt and will remain there for 3-5 years until they mature.
-adult parasites will leave silt as sea lampreys and feed on fish.

*** each adult lamprey will spend 12-18 months in the lakes and destroy up to 40 pound of fish.

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33
Q

What are the ecological issues with hagfish?

A

Hagfish are a highly invasive species and they are causing a decline in the fish population in great lakes. It has commercial affects because fishing companies cannot take to market fish that have been bitten and there is a decrease in fish population.

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34
Q

What are the teeth of hagfish made out of?

A

Keratin

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35
Q

Explain the semicircular canals

A

Sensory structures that are the earliest development of ear canals

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36
Q

Vertigo

A

Sensation of feeling dizzy

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37
Q

Invasive species

A

Any species that moves into a havitat that is not native to them and they over compete against the native species

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38
Q

What are some physical features of hagfish?

A

Eye
-Nostril
-Buccal tunnel
-External gill slits
- Anterior dorsal fin
-Caudal fin
-Tail
-Cloacal aperture

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39
Q

Lampricide

A

A pesticide used to try to control sea lamprey populations. This pesticide specifically targets the larval stage of the sea lamprey.

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40
Q

What starts the class of fish?

A

Chondrichthyes

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41
Q

What are the sub classes to Chondrichthyes?

A

Holocephali and elasmobranchii

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42
Q

What is a unique characteristic we begin to see with Chondrichthyes?

A

They begin to have jaws.

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43
Q

What is the study of fish?

A

Ichthyology

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44
Q

-Chon

A

means having cartilage

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45
Q

What is the purpose of having pointed bodies?

A

It allows for efficient hydrodynamic movement

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46
Q

What are some characteristics of Chondrichthyes?

A

-about 900 species
-Cartilaginous skeleton
-oily liver
-5-7 pairs of external gill slits
-3 pairs of semicircular canals
-Almost all viviparous
-two chambered heart
-heterocercal caudal fin
-pelvic claspers
-placoid scales
-ventral. outh and polyphydont teeth

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47
Q

What is the purpose of the liver in chondrichthyes??

A

It plays a dual function where it takes care of toxins in the body and regulate fat. It is also now full of vacuoles that help it maintain buoyancy.

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48
Q

Viviparous

A

giving birth to live young

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49
Q

oviparous

A

being born from an egg

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50
Q

What is the purpose of pelvic claspers?

A

Helps male sharks keep female sharks in place since they are not as willing to mate. The claspers attach to the females and inflict pain if they begin to move too much or try to fight the male sharks.

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51
Q

Define polyphydont teeth in sharks

A

They keep constantly growing where older teeth are in the front and newer teeth are in the back.

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52
Q

What are the variations of the caudal fin?

A

Heterocercal (shark)
Diphycercal (lungfish)
Homocercal (perch)

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53
Q

What is the ancestral form of the caudal fin?

A

The heterocercal tail

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54
Q

What are the variations of scales in fish?

A

-Placoid scales (cartilaginous fishes)
-Ganoid scales (nonteleost bony fishes)
-Cycloid scales (teleost fishes)
-Ctenoid scales (teleost fishes)

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55
Q

What is the ancestral scale form?

A

Having placoid scales

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56
Q

Atrium

A

top chamber of the heart

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57
Q

ventricle

A

bottom chamber of the heart

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58
Q

Heterocercal

A

asymmetrical tail

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59
Q

Homocercal

A

Having a symmetrical tail

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60
Q

Diphycercal

A

having a symmetrical tail but it also comes to a point

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61
Q

Placoid scales

A

each scale has little tiny spines that give it a sand paper feel

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62
Q

Ganoid scales

A

diamond like scales

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63
Q

Cycloid scales

A

overlapping circular scales

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64
Q

Ctenoid scales

A

circular/square shape with little spines at the end

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65
Q

Biphydont teeth

A

Type of teeth humans have; having two sets of teeth

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66
Q

What is one specialized sensory characteristics of Chondrichthyes?

A

They have neuromast cells that are found in the lateral line that act as mechanoreceptors and detect movement in the water

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67
Q

What is a second specialized sensory characteristics of sharks?

A

They have ampullae of lorenzini which are sensory cells that are sensitive to electrical potentials and detect prey, which gives off a weak magnetic field.

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68
Q

Are the 2 final specialized sensory characteristics of sharks?

A

-They have chemoreception which aids in their amazing smell and can detect 1 part per 10 billion - hammer heads specifically have stereo smell and really good vision.

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69
Q

How does the mechanoreception and electroreception work in sharks?

A

They have jelly filled canals that are concentrated in the rostrum that are electroreceptive; electrical pulses are then passed onto a bundle of nerves (known as ampullae of larenzini) that sits at the base of these canals.

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70
Q

What is the main differences between Holocephali and elasmobranchii?

A

Holocephali are includes the ratfish and rays and have 4 gill slits opening.

Elasmobranchii includes the sharks and has 5-7 fill slits.

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71
Q

What are holocephali also called?

A

Chimaeras

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72
Q

What are the characteristics of holocephali?

A

-Know as rabbitfish, ratfish, spookfish, ghostfish (25 species)
- remnants left of a line that diverged from the shark lineage during the devonian era (300 mya)
-Have jaws that bear large flat plates, upper jaw is fused to cranium, and have a grinding dentition (bottom jaw)
-Have bizarre shapes and are not well understood, rarely caught but are beautifully colored and iridescent

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73
Q

What are the major differences between skates and rays?

A

-Skates have an elongated but thick tail stalk that supports two dorsal finds and a terminal caudal fin, they are also oviparous.

Rays have a whiplike tail, and its fins are replaced with one or more enlarged, serrated, and venomous dorsal barbs; viviparous.

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74
Q

Differences between skates and rays simplified

A

1) Rays are normally larger
2) Skates are oviparous while rays are viviparous
3) Skates have a thick and long tail stalk while rays have a whiplike and venomous tail.

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75
Q

What is the fourth class under vertebrata?

A

Osteichthyes (have bone)

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76
Q

What are the subclasses to osteichthyes?

A

Actinopyterygii (ray finned) and Sarcopterygii (lobe fins)

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77
Q

What are the characteristics of Actinopterygii?

A

-Known as the ray finned fish
-adapted to radiation in Devonian age (age of the fish)
-Includes 27,000 species
-Have a bony skeleton
-Have a homocercal tail
-Have ganoid scales in ancestral forms and cycloid or ctenoid scales in derived forms
-Have pairs fins that are supported by lepidotrichia (sharp ray like bones in fins).

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78
Q

What the Devonian era known form?

A

Was 300 mya and is known as the age of the fish.

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79
Q

What are lepidotrichia and what is its purpose?

A

They are sharp ray-like bones in the fins that provide structure and protection.

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80
Q

What are the operculum?

A

Boney covers over the gills of fish

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81
Q

What are some basic external anatomy features of Actinopterygii?

A

Lateral line
-Dorsal fin
-Caudal fin
-Anal fin
-pectoral fin
-pelvic fin
-gills
-operculum

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82
Q

How does respiration occur in Actinopterygii?

A

Respiration is accomplished through their gills. The gills have a counter-current exchange system that allows respiration to occur.

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83
Q

Explain the purpose of the swim bladder in Actinopterygii

A

It aids in the buoyancy in fishes.

In chondrichthyes they have large oily livers with vacuoles in the liver cells that increase pressure and allows for movement in the water column

In actinopterygii, they have gas bladders that adjust with water and aid in movement in the water column.

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84
Q

Sarcopterygii

A

Commonly known as the lobe-finned fish

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85
Q

What are some characteristics of sarcoptergii?

A

-They had morphological characteristics that were superficially similar to amphibians
-There are 8 extant species within 2 orders
-They have a diphycercal tail
-Fertilization can be external or internal
-The big change: was the beginning of the evolution of lungs.

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86
Q

What order are the lungfish in?

A

The Dipnoi order. This class is closest to amphibians

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87
Q

What are some species of lungfish?

A

-Australian lungfish
-African lungfish
-South American Lungfish

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88
Q

Australian lungfish

A

Are the ancestral forms and had one lung, were aquatic, and rely on gills but can use lung as a backup.

-They swim by slow body undulations or through “walking” with fins and similar to early amphibians

-Use single lung when stressed

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89
Q

African (Protopterus) and South American Lungfish (Lepidosiren paradoxa)

A

-Have tiny gills and rely more on their lungs.
-Can drown if they are prevented from using its paired lungs
-Highly mobile paired appendages
-Undergo estivation (African lungfish)
-First time we begin to see a true transition from living in the sea to life on land.

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90
Q

Estivation

A

Ways that an organism accomplishes torpor by avoiding dry, hot weather

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91
Q

Torpor

A

educing your metabolic rate and decreasing your energy demands

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92
Q

What is the Reptile class known for?

A

Having an amniotic egg

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93
Q

What orders fall under reptiles?

A

-Testudines (turtles)
-Squamata (lepidosauria)
-Crocodilia

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94
Q

What are the sub orders of squamata?

A

-Serpentes (snakes)
-Lacertilia (Lizards)

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95
Q

What animals are Amniotes?

A

-Includes the reptiles, birds, mammals, and amniotes

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96
Q

What are the derived features of amniotes?

A

They have an amniotic egg now that they are in terrestrial ecosystems which have been fully colonized by them
-They have waterproof skin
-Have costal ventilation using paired lungs (which is movement of the ribs)

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97
Q

What is the most ancient reptile order?

A

Testudines

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98
Q

Egg characteristics of amniotes

A

They retain their eggs inside without laying it out

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99
Q

Skin characteristics of amniotes

A

They now have scales, feathers, fur and waterproof skin

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100
Q

Costal Ventilation

A

It enhances their respiration by using their ribs to expand the space in the lungs to allow extra oxygen to come in. This is important b/c reptiles take on a much larger form and need more oxygen.

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101
Q

Parts of the Amniotic Egg

A

-Leathery Shell
-Chorion
-Allantois
-Yolk sac
-Embryo

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102
Q

What are the 4 major chambers of the amniotic egg?

A

Amnion
Allantois
Chorion
Yolk Sac

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103
Q

Purpose of the Amnion

A

Purple sac that directly cushions the embryo and provides protection and support

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104
Q

Purpose of the allantois

A

Where the developing embryo stores its waste

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105
Q

Purpose of the Chorion

A

Thin white layer that allows for gas exchange to occur with the external environment

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106
Q

Purpose of the Yolk Sac

A

Where the embryo receives its nutrition from

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107
Q

Characteristics that Reptiles have that distinguishes them from amphibians

A

Better developed lungs
Tough, dry scaly skin that offers protection against desiccation and physical injury
Amniotic egg permits rapid development of large young in relatively dry environments
Have an efficient and versatile circulatory system and higher blood pressure than amphibians
Have efficient strategies for water conservation
Nervous system is much more complex

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108
Q

Desiccation

A

Drying out

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109
Q

Why have turtles been so successful?

A

B/c of their hard shells and low metabolic needs. Turtles, crocodiles, and birds have been the only species that have survived mass environmental catastrophes.

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110
Q

What is the earliest known turtles?

A

The eunotosaurus africanus which lives 260 mya during the permian (before the age of the dinos)

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111
Q

What are the two extant lineages of turtles?

A

-Pleurodires
-Cryptodires

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112
Q

Pleurodires

A

-Known as side-necked turtles
-Live in the southern hemisphere

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113
Q

Neck Mechanism of Pleurodires

A

Can bend their neck to the side to afford their protections yet it is not as efficient b/c is still leaves their neck exposed

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114
Q

Cryptodires

A

-Hidden necked turtles
-Live in the Northern Hemisphere
-about 350 species total

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115
Q

Neck mechanism of cryptodires

A

Their cervical vertebrae allows them to bend it so that the turtles can fully pull their neck into their shell.

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116
Q

Evolutionary contraint of a turtles shell

A

There has been no selective pressure for turtles to get rid of their shell and therefore have not evolved any other traits that we commonly see such as being able to glide, slide, or live high up on trees.

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117
Q

Bone breakdown of a turtle

A

-Neck
-Ribs
-Fused Vertebrae
-Carapace
-Plastron

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118
Q

Carapace

A

The top of a turtles’s shell

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119
Q

Plastron

A

The bottom of a turtles shell

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120
Q

What are the classifications of amniotes based on temporal fenestration?

A

Anapsid (turtles)
-Synapsid (mammals)
-Diapsid (other reptiles/birds)

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121
Q

Temporal Fenestration

A

Posterior to the orbit

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122
Q

Anapsid

A

Has no opening posterior to its orbit

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123
Q
A
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124
Q

Synapsid

A

Has 1 opening posterior to its orbit

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125
Q

Diapsid

A

Has 2 openings posterior to its orbit

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126
Q

Gender of turtles

A

-Turtles do no have sex chromosomes
-They have temperature sex determination where gender is determined by the temperature they were in during incubation

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127
Q

Temperature sex determination

A

Cooler temps. leads to males and hotter temps. lead to females

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128
Q

Conservation concerns in regards to a turtles eggs

A

Global warming can cause a giant skew towards one gender because as the ground warms up, then it will affect temperature sex determination (for turtles we would se more and more females being born over males)

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129
Q

What other animals have temperature sex determination?

A

Crocs

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130
Q

What falls under the Order Squamata?

A

(Lepidosauria) - Common name is Lizards and snakes

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131
Q

What is the first sub-order of Squamata?

A

The Serpentes (aka the snakes)

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132
Q

What are the two types of venomous snakes?

A

Elapids and Vipers

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133
Q

What group of snakes if nonvenomous?

A

The Colubrid

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134
Q

What falls under the Elapids group?

A

The cobras and coral snakes

135
Q

What falls under the Colubrid group?

A

The garter snakes

136
Q

When is a statistical characteristics of snakes?

A

Out of 3,900 species, only about 600 (15%) of them are actually venomous.

137
Q

What type of toxins do elapids and vipers produce?

A

Elapids produce neurotoxins while vipers produce hemotoxins.

138
Q

Neurotoxin

A

Venom that are destructive to nerve tissue

139
Q

Hemotoxin

A

Venom that specifically targets red blood cells which affects tissues and internal organs.

140
Q

Where do venomous snakes store their venom?

A

Them have a swollen posterior where venom glands are stored. A typical sign of a snake being venomous is if they have a swollen head (bicycle seat looking head)

141
Q

Characteristics of BOAS?

A

They are non venomous but kill their prey by constricting them to death.

142
Q

What is the Pit organ?

A

It is also called the loreal pit; it allows for the detection of infrared radiation (heat) that is given off by other organisms.

143
Q

Characteristics of snake bites

A

Snakes have an immensely fast strike and they have fangs as sharp as hypodermic needles. Adult snakes can also have a dry bite where no venom is released from their fangs when they bite.

144
Q

Characteristics of a snake feeding

A

-Snakes have highly kinetic skulls which allows them to eat organisms that are much bigger than they are.

145
Q

Olfaction advances in snakes

A

They have a vomeronasal organ (also called Jacobson’s organ)
-They extend and flap out their tongues which captures odor particles from its environment and are mixed with fluids in the mouth which are then delivered to the ducts that lead to the vomeronasal organ.
-The mouth is connected to Jacobson’s organ.
-This process increased their ability to smell.

146
Q

Quadrate Bone

A

Not rigidly attached and connects the maxilla and dentary which allows the jaw to be more flexible. The quadrate bone pivots vertically and horizontally which allows the jaw to rotate.

147
Q

Lower jaws of snakes

A

The lower jaws of snakes are not fully connected. It is actually two pieces that are connected by an elastic ligament which allows each side of the jaw to move independently from one another.

148
Q

What is the second sub order of Squamata?

A

Lacertilia (aka the lizards)

149
Q

Characteristics of Lizards

A

-Includes approximately 7,000 species
-Drastically range in sizes from 16mm geckos to 3m komodo dragons

150
Q

What is the scientific name for geckos?

A

Sphaerodactylus

151
Q

What was the Megalania prisca?

A

A fossil from the Pleistocene era that was found in australia and was 5.5 m long which would be the largest lizard alive.

152
Q

Varanidae

A

The largest family of lizards that includes the komodo dragons and the monifers

153
Q

What is the ice age era called?

A

The Pleistocene era

154
Q

Tail Autonomy of Lizzards

A

Some lizards can drop their tail as a defense mechanism but can only do it once in their life span. Their tail is replaced by a cartilaginous rod.

155
Q

What is the trade off to lizards dropping their tail?

A

They have to be very selective of when and if they drop their tail because females will favor males that have not dropped their tail. This is because having dropped your tail signifies to the females that the male came really close to death and might not be a good mate for protection.

156
Q

What is another defense mechanism of lizards?

A

They are able to camouflage into their surroundings to hide from predators.

157
Q

Diversity of Lizards

A

There are all sorts of different forms that lizards can take such as iguanas, chameleons, and those that have horns in their exterior for protection.

158
Q

Reversals in Lizards

A

here is a worm like lizard called the Amphisbaenia. Which is a legless lizard that is fossorial, and the shape of its head allows them to be efficient diggers.

159
Q

What is the third order of the class reptiles?

A

Crocodilia

160
Q

What are the 3 families of crocodilia?

A

Alligatoridae
Crocodylidae
Gavialidae

161
Q

Survivorship of crocodilia

A

They survived the dino extinction and are the most closely related relative to birds.

162
Q

Characteristics of Crocodilia

A

Includes 28 species of crocs that is divided into 3 families
Most are semiaquatic
Although they are big and bulky, they can move relatively fast in land (some can gallop)
They have a laterally compressed tail, and have a dorsal-ventrally flattened body/head
-They also have a jaw strength that can easily snap human bones

163
Q

Characteristics of Alligatoridae

A

Includes the alligators and caimans. Predominantly new world and live in freshwater. Are also less aggressive and are more likely to run away from danger or if spooked.

164
Q

Characteristics of Crocodylidae

A

True crocs
Cosmopolitan (all over)
-Mainly live in saltwater
-Freshwater species are euryhaline

165
Q

Estruaries

A

Where salt water and freshwater meet

166
Q

Nilecrocodile

A

The most aggressive species of crocodiles

167
Q

Gavialidae

A

-Have a very narrow snout
-Piscivorous

168
Q

Piscivorous

A

Feed on fish

169
Q

Body structure differences in crocodilia

A

Alligators have a broad snout while crocs have a snout that comes to a point.
A gharial has a very thin and pointy snout.
In alligators, the first teeth we see stick out are from the upper jaw.
In crocs, the first teeth we see stick out are from the bottom jaw.

170
Q

Parental Care of Aligators

A

Alligators take on active parenting roles by doing things such as bringing food to their young.

171
Q
A
172
Q

Sex determination of crocs

A

Crocs are temperature sex dependent and do not have sex chromosomes.

173
Q

Feeding habits of crocodilia

A

-Are sit and wait attackers and will surprise attack its prey by jumping out of the water
-Have huge powerful jaw muscles that can easily disable its prey
-Typically drag prey into water to quickly drown its prey
-Will tear (dismember) its prey apart
-Will utilize the death roll (which is axial rotation) to easily subdue its prey

174
Q

What is the class that birds fall under?

A

The Aves

175
Q

Avian Diversity

A

-11,000 species
- worldwide distribution
-one of the most beloved groups of vertebrate animals
- Very diverse in form and function, but they have underlying uniformities
- First birds appeared during the Jurassic age

176
Q

What is a common characteristic that all birds share?

A

They all have feathers

177
Q

Earliest evolution of Birds

A

Birds evolved from the transitional species called Archaeopteryx. This species had both reptilian and bird characteristics.

178
Q

What were some characteristics of the Archaeopteryx?

A

Toothed beak
- Wing claw
- Airfoil wing with contour feathers
- Long tail with many vertebrae

179
Q

What is the study of birds?

A

Ornithology

180
Q

When did bones first appear?

A

With boney fish

181
Q

What is the breakdown of bird anatomy?

A

They have a body spindle-shape with 4 divisions; the head, neck, trunk, and tail

182
Q

Forelimbs of birds modified as

A

wings

183
Q

Characteristic of flying birds

A

They have a fully ossified skeleton with air cavities. These cavities allow the birds to be less dense which is important for birds that are capable of flying.

184
Q

Mouth of birds

A

they do not have teeth, they only have a beak

185
Q

Brain of birds

A

They have a large cerebellum with advanced optic lobes. This is important because it gives the birds balance and stability

186
Q

Heart of birds

A

They have a four chambered heart and it is fully divided between the left and right sides. Birds are the first animals on the planet to have a true 4 chamber heart.

187
Q

Respiration of birds

A

Birds have two cycles of respiration with air constantly moving over its lungs

188
Q

Thermoregulation of birds

A

Birds are endothermic

189
Q

Waste of birds

A

They do not have a bladder, they have uric acid main waste which is combination of its poop and liquid waste.

190
Q

Baby bird characterisitcs

A

Are either precocial or altricial

191
Q

Most diverse order of bird

A

The Passeriformes (known as the song birds) are the most diverse order of birds. Which includes 6,500 species. These birds have a syrinx which allows them to use their vocals to create songs.

192
Q

type of fertilization of birds

A

They have internal fertilization and are oviparous

193
Q

Septum

A

Separates Deoxygenated blood and oxygenated blood

194
Q

Endothermic

A

Mammals and birds maintain a constant internal temperature.

195
Q

Altricial

A

Young that are helpless at birth and completely rely on parental care for survivorship

196
Q

Precocial

A

Young that are ready to withstand their environment as soon as they are born

197
Q

Syrinx

A

Is a specialized characteristics for the production of song.

198
Q

What are the two hypotheses for the origin of flight?

A

-From the Trees Down Hypotheses
-From the Ground up Hypotheses

199
Q

Explain from the Trees Down Hypotheses

A

ncestors of birds were arboreal and their feather allowed them to glide/jump from tree to tree and over time these short glides became longer until they were able to fully fly over longer distances.

200
Q

Explain from the Ground Up Hypotheses

A

Birds lived and ran on the ground and their feathers allowed them to have short spurts of galloping and moments of airlifting off the ground. Over time, as speed increased and birds had better developed feathers, birds were able to use their speed to take off and begin to fly.

201
Q

Arboreal

A

Living in trees

202
Q

What are some adaptations for Powered Flight?

A

-Having wings and feathers for lift and propulsion
-Wing length and taper wings reduce drag
-Birds must overcome drag and gravity to be able to fly
-Reduction in mass; shown through having no urinary bladder, only have one ovary, and having small gonads
-Having powered muscles
-Having large hearts
-Two cycles of respiration (complex lungs)
-Having big brains
-Having a stiff/fused vertebral column
-Having pneumatized bones

203
Q

Taper wings

A

Wings that are angled and slighted bended down at the tip. Best way to overcome drag and gravity.

204
Q

Drag

A

Is friction that is created as you move through the air.

205
Q

What are the skeletal adaptations for flight?

A

Having pneumatized bones and a keeled sternum

206
Q

Pneumatized bones

A

Bones that have air pockets throughout

207
Q

Keeled sternum

A

allows for additional surface area for flight muscles to grow

208
Q

What is the tradeoff for having pneumatized bones?

A

A
Because the bones are birds are filled with air pockets, birds can easily break their bones

209
Q

Contour Feathers

A

hey are flight feathers and are asymmetrical

210
Q

Aftershaft

A

Some feathers have aftershafts which attach at the base of contour feathers. Aftershaft feathers are used for insulation

211
Q

Filoplumes

A

Have a tactile/sensory functions and are found near the face

211
Q

Down Feathers

A

Are used for insulation and for waterproofing the body of the bird.

212
Q

Avian Respiration

A

Birds have a 4 chambered heart and they are endothermic animals.
-They have air sacs in their lungs that allows birds to have 2 cycles of inhalation and exhalation to move oxygen throughout their system.
- Birds have constant flow of air through their lungs, which is highly efficient for their active lifestyle.

213
Q

Explain the double respiration cycle of birds

A

Cycle 1: During inspiration, air is moved towards the posterior air sac and then the air flows OVER the lungs.
Cycle 2: Air moved from over the lungs and towards the anterior air sacs is then going through expiration. As this is happening, air is also filling the posterior air sacs (cycle 1).

214
Q

Why do birds have double respiration cycles?

A

t is to double the oxygen efficiency in their body since they have very high metabolic rates.

215
Q

What is the bird species we need to know for the exam?

A

Passeriformes

216
Q

Passeriformes

A

Have a specialized structure for the complex creation of sound known as the syrinx.

217
Q

Vision of birds

A

They have excellent vision, some species have huge eyes relative to their body size (hawks, owls, eagles)

218
Q

Why do birds need acute, sharp vision?

A

Having good eye sight is essential for safe flight.

219
Q

Hearing of birds

A

They have hearing similar to humans even though birds have small ‘ears’. They have a modification in their ear bones to allow for this hearing to occur.

220
Q

Hearing of Owls

A

Owls have specialized hearing that allows them to locate prey in the dark. They are also able to locate prey in horizontal and vertical planes.

221
Q

Cognition development of birds

A

Birds are known to be really smart and have advances in the development of their cerebral cortex. Some birds are believed to be able to talk and understand human language as well as be able to solve puzzles. Some of these species are the Psittacine and Corvid Birds

222
Q

Cerebrum

A

Responsible for conscious thought and actions

223
Q

Psittacine birds

A

e.g Parrots

224
Q

Arctic Terns

A

The most extreme migration on the planet. Where birds spend the summer in the Artic and then migrate to Antartica.

225
Q

Migration of birds

A

-Some species move halfway across the world
- Birds need be able to navigate well and have endurance to be able to migrate
- 40% of birds migrate seasonally (5 billion birds per year)
-Banding studies has shown origins, pathways, and destinations of bird migration

226
Q

Navigation

A

How birds know where to go and why

227
Q

Migration

A

Leaving one area and coming back to that same area at some point

228
Q

Why do birds migrate?

A

The cold is intolerable to birds since they are endothermic animals. They also migrate to help reduce competition if there go towards an area that has more resources based on seasons.

-Food resources decrease in the winter
-Avoid winter climates and winter storms
-Reduce competition

229
Q

Navigation Mechanisms of Birds

A

-They use UV light and Polarized light to help navigate certain landmarks to help them move from point A to point B
- They use the sun as a compass
- Odors (when they begin to get close to where they are going, they can detect familiar smells)
- Magnetism (can utilize the earth’s magnetic fields for navigation
-Use the stars as compasses

230
Q

Philopatry

A

Love of home

231
Q

Conservation concerns having to do with Bird Migration

A

Landscape changes and human development is in essence leaving birds stranded from location they would previously migrate towards.
-As these stop over areas decrease it is increasing the mortality rates of birds

232
Q

What falls under the Class Mammalia?

A

They are all sub classes*
-Monotremata
-Marsupialia
- Plancentalia

233
Q

What is the unifying characteristic of mammals?

A

They can all produce milk and have mammary glands in which they use to nourish their young

234
Q

Diversity of Mammals

A

-5500 species
-originated in the Triassic Era but their diversity was limited until the Cenozoic Era
-They all lactate to feed their young
- Half of the mammal diversity is made up of rodents
- Have a huge morphological diversity (bats v. whale v. Giraffe v. Mole)

235
Q

What is the second largest group of mammals?

A

The Chiroptera! These are the bats

236
Q

What is the first largest group of mammals?

A

The Rodentia! Includes 2,200 species

237
Q

Monotremes Characteristics

A

Lack nipples and instead part of their skin is modified into mammary glands and their young directly such on their skin to get milk. Monotremes are also oviparous

238
Q

Marsupials

A

Have nipples
-Have very short gestation periods
-Their development is completed in their mother’s pouch

239
Q

Placental Mammals

A

Young are developed in the placenta

240
Q

Laundry list of mammals

A

have hair
Have glandular skin that includes sweat, scent, sebaceous, and mammary glands
-Have middle ear bones
-Have diphydont teeth that are either homodont or heterodont
-Have moveable eyelids
-Have fleshy external ears
-Four chambered heart
-Non nucleated biconcave red blood cells
-Alveolar lungs
-Defined larynx
-Paired kidneys with urinary bladder
-Have more complex brain development (cerebral cortex)
-Young are nourished by milk from the mammary glands

241
Q

Sweat glands

A

Used for temperature control and to regulate internal body temp

242
Q

Scent glands

A

Used to attract mates

242
Q

Sebaceous Gland

A

Secretes sebum to help keep the skin moist

243
Q

What are the middle ear bones of mammals divided?

A

The middle ear bones are the smallest bones in the body of a mammal. The middle ear bones are split into the incus, malleus, and stapes

244
Q

Homodont teeth

A

Teeth that are all pretty much the same shape/size throughout. E.G. elephants have mostly all molars used to grind down their specific diet

245
Q

Heterodont teeth

A

Having different types of teeth throughout. E.G. dogs have canines, molars and incisors

246
Q

Why do mammals have non nucleated biconcave red blood cells?

A

o make more room to carry oxygen

247
Q

Alveoli

A

Little air like sacs where gas exchange take place in the lungs. MAIN PURPOSE IS TO EXPAND THE SURFACE AREA FOR GAS EXCHANGE TO OCCUR

248
Q

What is the purpose of having paired kidneys?

A

Used for excretion

249
Q

Cerebral cortex

A

Responsible for conscious thought

250
Q

characteristics of Monotremes

A

-5 species
-Includes the duck-billed platypus
-Do not have birth to live young (oviparous mammals)
-Eggs hatch rapidly which is followed by lactation in the mother.
-No nipples
-Lactation occurs through a specialized patch of skin

251
Q

Unique characteristic of the Duck-billed platypus

A

t have a venomous spur which is mainly used for predatory defense. It is one of the only mammals that contains venom.

252
Q

Characteristics of Marsupials

A

-Includes the koalas, kangaroos, and tasmanian devils
-Major characteristic is that they give birth to very premature offspring that are not fully developed and complete their development in the mother’s pouch
-Have a placenta
-Have very short gestation period

253
Q

Gestation period

A

The time in which the developing embryo is developing in the placenta of its mother.

254
Q

Development of Marsupials

A

-Born extremely early
-Climb up the fur of its mom and attaches to a nipple in the pouch
-Embryo = “Clawing head”
-Never detaches during its brooding period
-Once detaches they are called a ‘joey’ but still mainly stay in pouch until weaning

255
Q

Marsupials in U.S

A

the only marsupial in the US is the North American Possum

256
Q

Reliance on Parental Care

A

Mammals and birds and the two groups that majorly depends on parental care

257
Q

Placental groups

A

-Mothers have a placenta that directly nourishes the developing fetus
-Are all viviparous (give birth to fully developed young)
-Some are altricial/some are precocial
-Gestation period in placental groups are much longer

258
Q

What falls under placental groups?

A

Pholidota (Pangolin)
-Rodentia (rodents)
Lagomorpha (rabbits)
-Chiroptera (bats)
-Carnivora (cats, dogs, bears)
-Ungulates (hoofed mammals including sea mammals)
-Primates (lemurs, apes, humans)

259
Q

Pangolin

A

Have a reversal to scales and is the most ancient group of mammals

260
Q

Ungulate digestion

A

Have specializations in their digestive track for the efficient break down of plants (plants are hard to break down and get nutrients from because of its cell wall)

261
Q

Purpose of the small intestine

A

to absorb nutrients

262
Q

Purpose of the large intestine

A

main job is to absorb water

263
Q

tomachs of deer, cows, and goats

A

they have a multi chambered stomach that aids in the process of breaking down plant material to get nutrients

264
Q

Ruminant stomach

A

Have a reticulum which is a muscular chamber that is used to further grind down plants

265
Q

Digitgrade

A

Primarily walks on their digits (dogs)

266
Q

Plantigrade

A

Walks on the soles of their feet (humans)

267
Q

Unguligrade

A

Walk on hoofed feet (horses)

268
Q

Sociality in Mammals

A

They have more complex brain and therefore have more complex behavior and have modifications to their behaviors through learning

269
Q

Define Sociality

A

The tendency to form social groups or live in structured groups

270
Q

Advantages of Sociality

A

1)Increases hunting success: groups may be able to exploit resources not available to single individuals
2)Predator defense: increased detection of predators and less time invested to search for predators, gives more time for eating
3) Increases reproductive fitness

271
Q

Where is sociality common?

A

Common in birds and mammals. Most primates form social groups

272
Q

Disadvantages of sociality

A

1) Disease transmission
2) Scarce resources and potential for increased competition among individuals which can increase fighting

273
Q

Primates

A

-Have complex brains
-Have complex social and behavior structure
-Understand reciprocity
-Understand fairness

274
Q

Altruism

A

Selfless act

275
Q

What is a unique characteristic of Amphibia?

A

hey have fully developed lungs and limbs

276
Q

What orders fall under Amphibia

A

Caudata
Anura
Gymnophiona

277
Q

What is included in Caudata?

A

The salamanders and Newts

278
Q

What is included in Anura?

A

Frogs

279
Q

What is included in Gymnophiona?

A

Caecilians

280
Q

Herpetology

A

The study of amphibians and reptiles

281
Q

Describe the open terrestrial niche hypothesis

A

Having less competition on land and more resources on land is one of the reasons believed as to why animals began to move towards land. Fish and aquatic life was becoming so dense that their solution was to diversify towards land to reduce competition.

282
Q

Why did species begin to move towards land?

A

Fish were reaching a diversity peak around 300 mya which created major selective pressures and competition. Species began to move to land because it decreased competition.

283
Q

How did animals first begin to transition towards land?

A

hey first adjusted and formed adaptations to shallow waters and pond edges. They still needed to live near an aquatic environment because their eggs are still subject to environmental pressures

284
Q

Describe the limbs of amphibians

A

They are usually quadrupedal (tetrapod) where their forelimb usually have four fingers (might have some reversals)

285
Q

Riparian Zones

A

Areas that are directly adjacent to a body of water

286
Q

What is the body form of amphibians typically like?

A

Their body form varies greatly among species for example a salamander v. a frog v. a caecilian are very different.

287
Q

What is the skin of amphibians like?

A

They have smooth and moist skin that is glandular

288
Q

How does respiration occur in amphibians?

A

Through their lungs and through cutaneous respiration. We also see some reversals to gills because some rely on breathing through their skin.

289
Q

Cutaneous respiration

A

breathe through skin

290
Q

How do amphibians regulate body temperature?

A

They are ectothermic meaning that the regulation of their body temperature depends on external surfaces (like fish).

291
Q

ectothermic

A

means you are cold blooded

292
Q

Describe the tympanic membrane that amphibians have

A

Frogs have a tympanic membrane and stapes that help advance the sense of hearing. The tympanic membrane is directly posterior to the eye and has stapes that are used for hearing. Frogs also have 1 middle ear bone.

293
Q

Why do amphibians have paired nostrils?

A

To detect chemical changes in the environment which helps them detect predators and for smell (chemoreception)

294
Q

How does fertilization occur in amphibians?

A

They have external feralization and many rely on aquatic habitats for reproduction

295
Q

What is the heart structure of amphibians?

A

They have a 3 chambered heart and have double circulation. They have two atria that receives blood from the two different circuits (the lungs and the bodily systems) For this reason amphibians are often described as having double circulation

296
Q

Define Artery

A

any vessel that moves blood away from the heart

297
Q

Define Vein

A

any vessel that moves blood towards the heart

298
Q

Describe the mixture of DB and OB in amphibian hearts

A

DB & OB can mix in amphibians b/c they are smaller and do not have a pressure to completely separate the two types of blood. The blood density difference between Db & OB allows then to follow the path they are supposed to go through.

299
Q

What are some characteristics of Caudata?

A

Known as the salamanders and Newts
-Around 655 species
-Greater diversity of them in North and Central America
-Early salamanders are more adapted to and aquatic lifestyle while more derived salamanders are adapted to terrestrial lifestyle.
-We see respiratory reversals in salamanders

300
Q

Explain the reversals in mud puppies

A

They do not have lungs and rely on gills for respiration meaning that they need to be fully submerged in water for respiration to occur.

301
Q

What are lungless salamanders called?

A

They falls under the family Plethodontidae and are a very successful group

302
Q

Characteristics of Plethodontidae

A

-Most diverse salamander family
-Widest geographic distribution
-rely completely on cutaneous respiration
-Nasolabial grooves
-Tongues stick out to 1.5x body length for prey capture

303
Q

Nasolabial grooves

A

This is a specialized adaptation that runs as a nose to be able to detect changes of smell in their environment - enhances chemoreception

304
Q

ex-situ

A

Conservation method where you take organisms out of their natural environment

305
Q

What is an additional defensive adaptation in Plethodontidae?

A

They have noxious secretions which can make them venomous for other animals to eat them. They also have a darker dorsal color to blend in but have a brightly colored ventral surface to warn off predators. They also have an unkenreflex

306
Q

Explain the unkenreflex

A

reflex that shows aposematic stomach to predator

307
Q

Reversals of Plethodontidae

A

Have a reversal to gills b/c their lungs and jaw and tongue take up to much space in their anatomy. This is also what allows them to coil their tongue into their mouth which gives them the ability to stretch out their tongue for predation. If they had lungs, they would not be able to coil up their tongue b/c they would choke.

308
Q

What is a local species of salamander to the chesapeake bay?

A

The eastern hellbender

309
Q

What order do frogs fall under

A

Anura

310
Q

What are some characteristics of frogs?

A

5000+ species
-Found everywhere except antarctic
-They have a jumping ability that is their most conspicuous adaptation
-Their entire body acts as a lever system which allows them to escape predation
-Throughout their life they can undergo metamorphosis
-They have changes in their feeding diet as their life forms change.

311
Q

What are the adaptation for jumping that frogs have?

A

have long limbs
have fused bones in the limbs
Have a short vertebral column
They have a pelvic girdle

312
Q

Explain why having long limbs and fused bones increases the frogs ability to jump.

A

They have a long fore limb and hind limb which would allow them to stretch farther. The fused bones also give them additional strength, especially when landing to avoid injury (radioulna) the tibiofibula is also fused for extra strength

313
Q

Explain why having a short vertebral column and pelvic girdle is important.

A

A shortened vertebral column helps avoid injury because they do not have to worry about their back bending. The pelvic girdle are the bones around the pelvis that are all elongated and act as a shock absorber for when landing after jumps.

314
Q

What are the four major shifts that frogs see as they undergo metamorphosis?

A

Habitat
Locomotion
Diet
Respiration

315
Q

Explain metamorphosis of frogs.

A

Fertilized eggs undergo cleavage and an embryo is nourished by the yolk
-Tadpole begins feeding on algae and has external gills for respiration (are completely aquatic)
-Skinfold grows over external gills and water exists through a spiracle
-Hindlimbs and forelimbs begin to emerge
-Tail shortens by reabsorption and metamorphosis is almost completed (become land animals at this point)
-Then continued to develop into a mature frog

316
Q

Amplexus

A

When a male frog clasps a female frog in order to mate and fertilize eggs

317
Q

What is a unique trait of frogs?

A

They are the only vertebrae that undergo complete metamorphosis in order to decrease introspecific competition between conspecifics to maximize success.

318
Q

Locomotion transitions of tabpoles/frogs

A

They have fins that allow them to move in the water - when they turn into adults, the fin like structures turn into limbs.

319
Q

Diet transition of tadpoles/frogs

A

Diet goes from algae as tadpoles to insects as adults

320
Q

Respiration shift of tadpoles/frogs

A

They have physiological shift from having gills as tadpoles to having a developed pair of lungs as adults

321
Q

What is the reproductive shift seen in frogs?

A

We begin to see a variety of interesting reproductive lifestyle in frogs as well as an increase in parental care during earliest tadpole phases.

322
Q

Parenting of a Pygmy Marsupial Frog

A

Females have a posterior pouch where tadpoles can swim in and out of the pouch to protect themselves which lowers the predation and mortality rate of the tadpoles.

323
Q

Parenting style of Surinam Toad

A

The females begin to create eggs within their skin. The eggs then move anteriorly in the body and then dorsally up the body. As they mate, the males fertilize the eggs that are sitting on her semiperminable dorsal portion of her body and the eggs are protected by a very thin layer of skin. When the female is preggo, they have bumps throughout their dorsal body and as the eggs hatch they emerge from the skin.

324
Q

Parenting Style of a Poison Arrow Frog

A

They have aposematic coloration and toxins that warn off predators. Babies then attach to the skin of the mother and as tadpoles emerge, females have a sticky coating where tadpoles can rest and be protected by the mother’s defense mechanisms (aposematic coloration and toxin emissions)

325
Q

Parenting style of Darwin’s Frogs

A

Known as mouth brooding frogs
-They have an extended flap of skin within the mouth of the mother and tadpoles can swim in and out of the mothers mouth which provides protection

326
Q

Why do frogs have these interesting reproductive lifestyles?

A

To increase the fitness success of their tadpoles b/c if you have less tadpoles reaching adult stages then their population would begin to decline.

327
Q

Common name for the order Gymnophiona

A

Caecilians

328
Q

Characteristics of Caecilians

A

-About 200 species
-Live in tropical regions
-Legless animals that burrow themselves deep down (some are aquatic)
-Have a tentacle that lies between its nostril and eyes and is used as a sense organ
-Some lay eggs and some give birth to live young (oviparous v. viviparous)

329
Q

What is a reversal found in Gymnophionas?

A

They have a reversal in their limbs and are all fossoliral animals which are animals that primarily live underground.

330
Q

Unique characteristics of Gymnophiona

A

-They rely on moisture b/c they need to keep their skin moist
-Only amphibians that can be viviparous
-The adaption of having chemical reception makes up for not having eyes for vision.

331
Q

Why are amphibians indicator species?

A

They are indicator species because their semi permeable skin is very sensitive to pollutants and diseases in the environment.

332
Q

Conservation concerns of amphibians

A

Global warming/climate change has increased the appearance of chytrid fungus which is killing off frogs as an alarming rate
-Land use changes is destroying the habitat of amphibians
-Commercial exploitation
-Pollutions and chemicals in the environment are affecting amphibians in many different ways

333
Q

Why is protecting amphibian populations important?

A

They aid in controlling insect populations as well as can aid with disease outbreaks
-They are cultural icons
-They have an intrinsic value of a species (aesthetic appeal)

BIO FINAL STUDY (6 decks)

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