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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

define life

A

Life is unique because they are organisms that have functions such as metabolism, growth, reproduction, and response to stimuli or adaptation to the environment originating from within the organism

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2
Q

How many chromosomes does bacteria have?

A

1

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3
Q

What is DNA made out of?

A

1- Sugar deoxyribose
2- nitrogenous base
3- Phosphate group

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4
Q

What is homeostasis?

A

The ability of an organism to maintain relatively constant internal conditions that are different from their environment.

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5
Q

What is the hierarchy of living organisms?

A

1) Atom 2) Molecule 3) Cells 4) Tissue 5) Organs 6) Organ Systems 7) Organisms 8) Population 9) Community 10) Ecosystem 11) Biosphere

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6
Q

What are the 6 unifying characteristics of living organisms?

A

)Metabolism-can make and produce their own energy
2)Unicellular or Multicellular- (The Cell Theory)
3)Homeostasis
4)Respond/adapt to stimuli and changes in their environment
5)Can reproduce and grow
6) All organisms contain DNA & RNA

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7
Q

What are prokaryotic cells?

A

Cells that lack a nucleus and lack many membrane bound organelles.

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8
Q

What are Eukaryotic cells?

A

Cells that have a nucleus and membrane bound organelles.

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9
Q

What are heterotrophs?

A

All consumers; can be organisms that eat off dead/decomposing material (decaying).

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10
Q

What are autotrophs?

A

All producers; can produce their own energy through 2 ways
1- through photosynthesis
2- through chemosynthesis

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11
Q

How many chromosomes do humans have?

A

46

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12
Q

Define Biodiversity

A

The variety in living things and the ecological complexes in which they occur.

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13
Q

How is Biodiversity measured?

A

It is measured through the variety of species
-Ecosystem functions
-Interactions (Pred/prey, mutualisms, parasite/host, competition)
-Habitat

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14
Q

define extant

A

Species that are alive today

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15
Q

What are the three domains of life?

A

1) Bacteria
2) Archaea
3) Eukarya

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16
Q

What are some characteristics of Bacteria?

A

They are unicellular organisms and are asexual, are also prokaryotic

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17
Q

What are some characteristics of Archaea?

A

They are unicellular organisms, asexual, and prokaryotic. They are also survive in very extreme environments.

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18
Q

What are some characteristics of Eukarya?

A

t includes the human species and it can be unicellular and multicellular. Under Eukarya there are Protists, plants, fungi, and animals.

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19
Q

What is the Hierachy of life?

A

Dear King Phillip Came Over For Good Soup

Domain
Kingdown
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

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20
Q

What are mutations?

A

Any changes in a gene, can be heritible

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21
Q

Define Fitness

A

The ability of an organism to survive and reproduce

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22
Q

Define Conspecific

A

Members of the same species

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23
Q

What is the Biological Species Concept?

A

t states that two organisms are conspecific to one another if individuals of the opposite sex and mate and produce fertile and viable offspring.

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24
Q

Define Viable

A

Offspring must also be able to reproduce

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25
Q

What is a weakness of the Biological species concept?

A

This concept cannot be applies to most species because most species do not reproduce sexual. Most species are asexual.

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26
Q

Define Evolution

A

Changes in the form and behavior of organisms throughout time. Species with a short lifespan can evolve faster and will have shorter evolution periods.

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27
Q

What is the Morphological/Typological species concept?

A

It separates species by their physical physical features and the number of certain characteristics that are shared between species.

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28
Q

What is the genetics species concept?

A

This is more useful for organisms that produce asexually. It categorizes species by similarities in DNA. Species under this concept are conspecific if they have 99% of the same genetic code.

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29
Q

Define Microevolution

A

The study of changes in allele frequencies of a population over time. Happens relatively faster and in smaller populations.

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30
Q

What is an allele?

A

A form on a gene

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31
Q

Define Macroevolution

A

The changes of an organism on a species scale

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32
Q

What is a phenotype?

A

The physical appearances of an organism.

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33
Q

What is a genotype?

A

The genetic code of an organism.

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34
Q

Define Creationism

A

All species were put on the earth by a higher being. This was the main belief before Darwin.

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35
Q

Who was Georges Cuvier?

A

Cuvier was the first to acknowledge extinction but not evolution.
He had a half science and half religious belief
Argued that the species we have on the planet today survived a catastrophic event.

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36
Q

Who was Jean Lamarck

A

Argued that throughout time, species change due to environmental pressures.
-Inheritance of acquired characteristics driven by need

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37
Q

What did Darwin want to prove?

A

Wanted to prove that all species come from a common ancestor and that species change through time. Modification through decent.

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38
Q

What is Biogeography?

A

The study of patterns in the geographical distribution of species. This also gives us evidence of species having a common ancestor. If the environment changes then the organism must change with it.

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39
Q

Endemic

A

Species that only live in one biogeographic location

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40
Q

Rhea

A

Live in South America, look like ostriches

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41
Q

Define Fossils

A

Preserved remains/impressions of once-living organisms

Most are bones, teeth, shells, seeds, spores, and other parts

Fossils are found in sedimentary rock layers

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42
Q

What are some weaknesses of fossils?

A

Organisms have to be at the right place at the right time and must have hard bones in order to become fossils. Meaning that soft bodied organisms are missing from the fossil record. Scientists must actually find these fossils which could be difficult and costly.

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43
Q

What is the law of superposition?

A

States that younger rocks are found on the top layer and older rocks are found at the bottom.

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44
Q
A
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45
Q

Define Stratigraphy

A

The order relative position of sedimentary rock layers (strata) and its relationship to the geological time scale.

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46
Q

How did Darwin use fossils and the law of superposition to help prove his theory.

A

Darwin used the law of superposition and relative dating to show that there had been evolutionary change in species throughout time. He used this through the fossils that he found that showed similar anatomical appearances in species.

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47
Q

Who was Thomas Malthus?

A

Studied demography - characteristics that make up the human population.
- Gave Darwin the idea of competition
- Saw that as populations increase, competition increases
-Argues that a population cannot grow forever
-Argued that the environment is never stagnant

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48
Q

Define Carrying Capacity

A

The maximum number of individuals that an environment can sustain given a resource base of that population.
-If the environment base increases or changes, then it could support a higher population.

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49
Q

What was the law of superposition able to show?

A

It was able to demonstrate how traits were changing through the sedimentary rock. Fossils assemblages do not stay static in time.

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50
Q

What is Hibernation?

A

Avoids cold weather

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51
Q

What is Estibation?

A

voids dry/warm weather

52
Q

What are Darwin’s major postulates?

A

1) There is genetic variation within a species. Individuals within a population differ from one another

2) Differences are passed from parents to offsprings

3) Some individuals are more successful at surviving and reproducing than others

4) Successful individuals succeed because of the variant traits inherited by parents

53
Q

Evolutionary Fitness

A

Is defined through the survivorship and reproduction output of an organism. Species that are more likely to survive and reproduce more frequently are considered “fit”.

54
Q

Adaptation

A

Is the key to fitness. Will always be any heritable trait of form, function, behavior, or development that improves the organisms ability to survive and reproduce.

55
Q

What are the types of adaptations we see?

A

1) Morphological
2) Physiological
3) Behavioral

56
Q

What does Darwinism involve?

A

Darwinism argues that natural selection is inexorable and unavoidable. Every single organism on this planet is subject to change.

Argues that individuals have a biological drive to reproduce and will always strive to do so.

Lifetimes are a series of analyzing the cost/benefit of natural selection that always leads to maximum reproduction output.

57
Q

What is Darwinism NOT about?

A

Defining a “perfect species”

An explanation for the origin of life on Earth

A guide to social policy or morality

58
Q

What are morphological adaptive traits?

A

Any physical traits that allow individuals to increase its survivalship.

59
Q

What are physiological adaptive traits?

A

The inner workings )body systems) that allow individuals to increase its survivalship.

60
Q

Define Torpor

A

Reduced body temperature and metabolic rate. Allows an organism to enter a period of time where they have low levels of activity.

61
Q

What lines of evidence do we have that supports decent with modification?

A

1) Fossils
2) Transitional Forms
3) Biogeography
4) Comparative Morphology
5) Homologous Structures and Divergence
6) Embryonic Development

62
Q

Law of Succession

A

States that fossils and living organisms in the same geographic region resemble each other, but are distinct from organisms found in other areas.

63
Q

What was the Archaeopteryx?

A

A bird that evolved during the period of the dinos. Seem to retain reptillian characteristics and bird anatomy.

64
Q

What makes birds unique?

A

Birds are distinguished from other similar species because birds are the only organism that has FEATHERS

65
Q

Transitional Forms

A

Evidence that suggests that forms are descended with modification from earlier forms. The fossil record shows evidence of these transmutations in progress.

It also gives us clues regarding the evolutionary trajectories of species

66
Q

hat is comparative morphology?

A

It is the study of body forms and structures of major groups of organisms.

It yields clues to evolutionary trends (similarities in one or more body parts) and suggests a common ancestor because of inheritance of these traits from a common ancestor.

67
Q

Define Homologous Structures

A

Any structure that provides evidence of a divergence from a common ancestor. They are structures with similar appearances and functions that derived from the same body part of a common ancestor.

68
Q

Define Divergent Evolution

A

Changes from the body form of a common ancestor

69
Q

What is Morphological convergence?

A

Environmental pressures cause two completely different unrelated species to develop some very similar traits. This does not yield clues about a common ancestor.

70
Q

What are analogous structures

A

Structures that have similar functions or appearances, throughout species and which was caused due to environmental challenges, but were not acquired from a common ancestor. They are not derived evolutionarily and developmentally.

71
Q

Aposematic

A

he coloration or markings of an organisms that serves to warn away predators.

72
Q

What are vestigial structures?

A

A morphological feature that has no apparent current function and came from a common ancestor. E.G. The bone in the forearm, wisdom teeth

73
Q

Patterns of development

A

Development patterns shift due to mutations in the homeotic genes (HOX genes). Yields clues about a common ancestor.

74
Q

Biochemistry as evidence for evolution

A

Protein, amino acids and DNA suggests divergence events all from a common ancestor due to the genetic similarities between species.

75
Q

Patterns in Embryological Development

A

Patterns in the early embryological development of different species yields clues about common ancestry due to shared similarities.

76
Q

Define microevolution

A

The change in allele frequencies in a population throughout time.

77
Q

Explain the Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium Model

A

It is used as a baseline to compare an evolving population to one that remains constant without evolutionary forces acting upon it. There are positive controls and negative controls. There is a part missing, ask classmate for his notes that he wrote

78
Q

What are the four processes that drive populations out of genetic equilibrium?

A

1) Mutations
2) Genetic Drift
3) Gene Flow
4) Selection

79
Q

What are mutations?

A

Raw material for evolutionary change. They are changes in alleles. They also occur at relatively low rates and can appear more often due to exposure to hazardous material such at radioactive material.

80
Q

What are the conditions under the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

A

Evolution is not occurring if:
1) No mutations occur
2) There is no genetic flow (meaning that the population is fully isolated)
3) The alleles present have no effect on the survival or reproduction ability of that population
4) Random mating (there is no active mate choice)

81
Q

What is the purpose of having a genetic equilibrium model (the Hardy-Weinberg Model)?

A

It serves to positively identify the mechanisms that drive changes in allele frequency.

82
Q

Polygenic

A

Multiple alleles that control a trait

83
Q

Incomplete Dominance

A

Bb

84
Q

Complete Dominance

A

ignore

85
Q

Deleterious mutation

A

Mutations that have a negative affect and decreases an organisms fitness.

86
Q

Lethal Mutations

A

Mutations that lead to the death of an organism. The organism is not even born.

87
Q

Neutral Mutations

A

Mutations that have 0 affect on an organisms fitness.

88
Q

Beneficial Mutations

A

Mutations that have a positive affect on an organisms fitness and is therefore favored by natural selection.

89
Q

Genetic Drift

A

In small populations, some alleles can randomly become fixed (one allele can be at 100% and the other ends up at 0%) which causes a loss of some alleles and an overall loss of genetic diversity.

It usually results in a decline of an organism fitness.

90
Q

What is Homozygous Dominant?

A

AA

91
Q

What is Heterozygous?

A

Bb

92
Q

Where do we typically see genetic drift occur and why?

A

n small populations because there is already a much smaller genetic diversity within small populations. It causes allele frequencies to change at random and leads to a loss of genetic variation within a population. It can also cause harmful alleles to become fixed in a population (due to increased inbreeding and mortality).

93
Q

Explain the Bottleneck Event

A

In a bottleneck event, some catastrophe (such as a natural disaster or a disease outbreak) occurs and the surviving population only has a fraction of the alleles that were present in the population before the catastrophe.

94
Q

Explain the Founder Effect

A

When a few individuals from a population start a new population with a different allele frequency than the original population.

95
Q

What is the Greater Prairie chicken example?

A

They only live in undisturbed grassland and because humans have turned grasslands into farming lands, the greater prairie chicken went from having a 5.2 alleles per locus to a 3.7 which reduced their survivorship to less than 50 percent.

96
Q

What are anthropologically caused events?

A

Events caused by the human race or through human action.

97
Q

Define habitat fragmentation

A

When parts of a habitat are destroyed, leaving behind smaller, unconnected areas.

98
Q

Define Migration

A

Movement of alleles between populations.

99
Q

Define Gene Flow

A

The transfer of alleles from the gene pool of one population to the gene pool of another population. It causes allele frequencies to shift.

100
Q

Explain what conservation applications are

A

Efforts that aim at increasing Gene flow within small populations, promoting genetic diversity across subpopulations such as the use of wildlife corridors.

101
Q

What were wildlife corridors?

A

Pieces of land/area that connects populations of the same species that are in different areas in order to promote them to reproduce and increase genetic diversity

102
Q

Define Directional Selection

A

In directional selection, allele frequencies give rise to a range in variation in phenotype that tend to shift in 1 consistent direction. One extreme end of the trait is going to be favored. It can also lead to extreme behaviors such as extreme mating dances.

103
Q

What happens during Stabilizing Selection?

A

Neither extreme end is favored. Meaning that the intermediate forms of a trait in a population are favored.

104
Q

What is an example of Stabilizing Selection?

A

The Sociable Weaver. Cannot be too small or else they will not be selected by female to mate with and cannot be too big because then they will be slower is escaping predators such as snakes.

105
Q

What happens during Disruptive Selection?

A

Forms on both ends of the range of variation are favored and intermediate forms are selected against.

106
Q

What is any example of Disruptive Selection?

A

African Finch populations in Cameroon. Small and sharp beaks as well as thicker beaks are favored for depending on the type of food that is available for them.

107
Q

Define Macroevolution

A

Simple: How species change as a whole

PPT Def: The process whereby an ancestral species gives rise to a pair of daughter species.

108
Q

What are the three steps in which Speciation Occurs?

A

Isolation of populations
-Divergence of Traits
-Reproductive Isolation

109
Q

Define Speciation

A

The process by which a new species comes to be on the planet.

110
Q

Define Divergence

A

Is equivalent to speciation
The splitting up from an ancestor and becoming a new species.

111
Q

Divergence in traits

A

Differences in traits over tim

112
Q

Explain Reproductive Isolation

A

Reproductive isolation begins when gene flow between populations of a species ends and genetic divergence follows and that once same species can no longer reproduce with each other.

113
Q

When has a divergence fully occurred and we see two separate species?

A

When gene pools of isolated populations diverge and now have, mutations, natural selection, and genetic drift working independently on each population. This leads to the two populations being reproductive isolated.

114
Q

Define Allopatric Speciation

A

A physical barrier arises and stops gene flow between two populations or subpopulations of a species. E.G. Alpacas, Llamas, and Camels.

115
Q

What are some barriers that can cause Allopatric speciation?

A

Mountains, Oceans

116
Q

What must happen first in order for speciation to occur?

A

There must be a shut down of gene flow between populations and subpopulations in order for speciation to occur.

117
Q

Define Dispersal

A

The ability to move around

118
Q

How does dispersal play into Allopatric Speciation?

A

Organisms with low dispersal capabilities tend to have more allopatric speciation effects.

119
Q

Define Sympatric Speciation

A

A new species may form even in the absence of a geographical barrier.

120
Q

What are the 5 types of ways a new species come about in Sympatric Speciation?

A

-Temporal Isolation
-Mechanical Isolation
-Behavioral Isolation
-Polyploidy
-Gametic Isolation

121
Q

Explain Temporal Isolation

A

Refers to time.

Occurs when members of the same species mating season and reproductive age does not overlap. AKA they have different mating seasons.

122
Q

Explain Behavioral Isolation.

A

When mating rituals become different from one another

123
Q

Mechanical Isolation

A

Occurs when males and females do not have compatible genitalia. Typically occurs in animals that have low cognition.

124
Q

Define Gametic Isolation

A

Typically seen in Marine or Aquatic animals where fertilization is external. Gametes have to be compatible with sperm released by the males. Can be seen in blue and red sea urchins.

125
Q

Define Polyploidy.

A

-When there are extra sets of chromosomes in the organism.

-This is common in plants.

-Organisms can only mate with individuals that have the same number of chromosome sets at they do.

BIO FINAL STUDY (6 decks)

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