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PSY2002 > Bias and decision making > Flashcards

Bias and decision making Flashcards

1
Q

rules of action/thought that define optimality (optimality principles) =

A

norms

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2
Q

_______ is a set of norms

A

rationality

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3
Q

what are the norms of rationality?

A

be consistent (coherence) and correspond to reality (correspondence)

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4
Q

is there a universal set or rational and optimal?

A

no (nobody can agree on a complete set of norms for reasoning)

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5
Q

overestimating frequency = which bias?

A

availability bias

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6
Q

switching your decision based on the question framing = which bias?

A

framing bias

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7
Q

which out of availability and framing bias’ is a correspondence error and which is a coherence error?

A

availability = correspondence, framing = coherence

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8
Q

what is ‘the linda problem’ an example of?

A

conjunction fallacy (example of bias)

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9
Q

decision making method that calculates the option with the highest expected utility =

A

expected utility theory

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10
Q

what is the decision rule for expected utility theory?

A

choose option with highest expected utility taking into account uncertainty

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11
Q

expresses the value of something for its use/preference/enjoyment (not value as in cost) =

A

utility

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12
Q

uncertainty affects _______

A

expectation

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13
Q

what is the formula foe calculating expected utility?

A

E = p x U (probability x utility)

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14
Q

how do you calculate expected utility if there are multiple options?

A

E = (p1 x U1) + (p2 x U2) etc

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15
Q

uncertainty give probability ________

A

distributions (uncertainty is a distribution around a value)

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16
Q

lots of variance = _____ distribution = ____ uncertainty

A

wide, high

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17
Q

is there a unit for utility?

A

no (utility is the unit)

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18
Q

how is rationality bounded?

A

the world is complex > decisions need to be made quickly, we have limited time, information and cognitive capacity

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19
Q

if we can’t always be rational how do we make decisions?

A

use heuristics

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20
Q

is correspondence or coherence more important to use to fit with the environment and why?

A

correspondence > ecological rationality

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21
Q

value of an action across evolutionary time =

A

adaptive value

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22
Q

what is evolution trying to provide you with?

A

cognitive mechanisms that allow you to be successful in maximising long term expected value

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23
Q

what are ways to maximise long term expected value?

A

average benefit of errors, avoiding costly mistakes, avoid high costs

24
Q

heuristics make assumptions about the _______ about _______ and _______

A

environment, associations, probabilities

25
Q

what amount of info means the recognition heuristic works well?

A

small amount of info (compared to no info or a lot of info)

26
Q

what were the results from Goldstein & Gigerenzer’s study with german and american ppts?

A

surprising result > german students more accurate for american cities and american students more accurate for german cities (probs because knew a small amount of info)

27
Q

what amount of info interferes with recognition?

A

too much info

28
Q

recognition heuristic works when the likelihood of hearing an option correlates with its _____ and doesnt work when incidence isn’t related to ______

A

value

29
Q

what are characteristics of good heuristics?

A

fast, not too much info, relies on an assumption about the environment

30
Q

give some examples of biases defined by norms

A

expected utility theory, laws of probability (conjunction problem) formal logic (wason selection task), evolutionary adaptiveness (ecological validity)

31
Q

what are 2 tasks that show human error/bias?

A

wason’s selection task, linda problem

32
Q

task where you should turn over E and 1 but confirmation bias is shown where people usually pick E and 6 which confirm the hypothesis rather than test it. What task is this?

A

Wason’s selection task

33
Q

task to find the rule which generates number sequences. you propose examples and be told if they fit or break the rule. starting example: 2-4-6. what task is this?

A

Wason’s 2-4-6 task

34
Q

what were the results of wason’s 2-4-6 task?

A

most people think of a rule and generate an example that fits (10-12-14) they show confirmation bias and a ‘positive test strategy’

35
Q

these tests seek to verify hypothesis (but can find it false) =

A

positive tests

36
Q

these tests seek to falsify hypothesis (but can find it true)

A

negative tests

37
Q

when choosing a positive test strategy what is best depends on?

A

beliefs and how it relates to the truth

38
Q

if the belief rule is specific and the truth rule is general what is the positive test strategy?

A

always confirms beliefs > belief never improves

39
Q

is the belief rule and the truth rule are both specific what is the positive test strategy?

A

rapidly converges on the truth

40
Q

wason selection task is designed that people get the _____ strategy according to _____

A

wrong, logic

41
Q

biases are not mere _____

A

errors

42
Q

mistakes are one-off, systematic errors are _______

A

consistent

43
Q

biases are making the wrong choice but for a reason. heuristic errors reveal the normal mechanisms of _______

A

reasoning

44
Q

what is effortful?

A

to calculate logic, work out utility calculations

45
Q

give reasons we might make systematic errors

A

using a strategy optimised for a different environment, considering a different bundle of choices, using a different cost/benefit analysis

46
Q

is a heuristic system 1 or system 2?

A

system 1 (rational = system 2)

47
Q

give some features of system 1 (heuristic)

A

comes 1st, share with other animals, quick, automatic, effortless, unconscious

48
Q

give some features of system 2 (rational)

A

comes from evolution, slow, deliberate, effortful, conscious

49
Q

what system when it gets out of hand causes errors?

A

system 1

50
Q

the intuitive, effortless system is ______ compared to the slow effortful system being ______

A

heuristics, rationals

51
Q

any theory where there are 2 systems that can both generate answers and bide for control =

A

dual process theory

52
Q

what are the predictions of rational vs. heuristic thinking as a dual process theory?

A

features should go together, people should switch between modes of thinking in the right circumstances

53
Q

if you have more time should you use rational or heuristic thinking?

A

rational

54
Q

a psychological theory that posits 2 processes that work at the same time or support the same capacity =

A

dual process theory

55
Q

in dual process theory what are features of the 2 processes?

A

usually work together but can be in conflict together, one usually has system 1 like properties and the other system 2 like properties

56
Q

when will you see biases?

A

features of normal cognitive processes (memory, attention, planning), can affect all people, part of thinking

57
Q

biases are defined against norms =

A

standards of rationality

PSY2002 (8 decks)

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