Behavioral Science: Cognition, Consciousness, Language

Question 1

Piaget’s (4) Stages of Cognitive Development

Answer 1

There are qualitative differences between the way that children and adults think.

1. Sensorimotor: birth - 2 yrs. Learn to manipulate environment to meet physical needs. Primary and secondary circular reactions. Object permanence (end of stage).
2. Preoperational: 2-7 yrs. Symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration.
3. Concrete operational: 7-11 yrs. Conservation, consider perspectives of others, logical thought working w/ concrete objects.
4. Formal operational: 11 yrs and beyond. Logical thought working with abstract ideas. Reasoning and problem-solving.

Question 2

Problem-Solving: Trial-and-Error

Answer 2

Various solutions are tried until one is found that seems to work.

Question 3

Problem-Solving: Algorithms

Answer 3

Formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problem.

Question 4

Problem-Solving: Deductive Reasoning (Top-Down)

Answer 4

Starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from info given.

Question 5

Problem-Solving: Inductive Reasoning (Bottom-Up)

Answer 5

Starts with specific instances, then draws a conclusion from them. Creates theory via generalizations.

Question 6

Decision-Making: Heuristics (2) (Availability, Representative)

Answer 6

Heuristics: simplified principles used to make decisions. Can lead you astray, but are essential to speed and efficiency.

1. Availability: make decisions based on how easily similar instances can be imagined. Used when deciding how likely something is.
2. Representative: categorize items based on whether they fit the prototypical, stereotypical, or representative image of the category.

Question 7

Decision-Making: Biases (4) (Disconfirmation, Confirmation, Overconfidence, Belief Perseverance)

Answer 7

Can impede a person’s analysis of available evidence.

1. Disconfirmation: evidence obtained from testing demonstrated that the solution doesn’t work.
2. Confirmation: tendency to focus on info that fits an individual’s beliefs, while rejecting info that goes against them. Contribute to overconfidence.
3. Overconfidence: tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible.
4. Belief perseverance: inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary.

Question 8

Decision-Making: Intuition

Answer 8

Ability to act on perceptions that may not be supported by available evidence.

Question 9

Decision-Making: Emotion

Answer 9

Subject experience of a person in a certain situation.

Emotions experienced while decision is being made AND emotions that a person expects to feel from a particular decision are involved in decision-making process.

Question 10

States of Consciousness: Alertness

Answer 10

Awake and able to think. Higher cortisol levels. EEG waves Beta (high f, alert or attending task requiring concentration) and Alpha (slower than Beta, awake but relaxing w/ eyes closed).

Question 11

States of Consciousness: Sleep

Answer 11

EEG waves Theta and Delta.
4 stages of NREM sleep. REM sleep is interspersed b/w cycles of NREM sleep stages. REM sleep associated with memory consolidation and dreams; paradoxical sleep.

Question 12

States of Consciousness: Dreaming (3 Theories / Neurocognitive Models)

Answer 12

1. Activation-synthesis: caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry –> mimic incoming sensory info, pieces of stored memories, desires, needs, etc. –> cortex tries to stitch unrelated info together –> dreams.
2. Problem-solving: dreams are a way to solve problems while you’re sleeping. Dream world is untethered by real world –> different interpretation of things.
3. Cognitive process: dreams are the sleeping counterpart of the stream of consciousness.

Question 13

States of Consciousness: Altered States (Hypnosis and Meditation)

Answer 13

Hypnosis: person appears to be in control on normal functions, but is in highly suggestible state.

Meditation: quieting the mind for some purpose. Decreases heart rate and BP. EEG resemble Stage 1 sleep w/ Theta and slow Alpha waves.

Question 14

Sleep Disorders (Types of Dyssomnia and Parasomnia)

Answer 14

Dyssomnia: difficulty falling or staying asleep, or avoiding sleep. Insomnia, narcolepsy (cataplexy, sleep paralysis, hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations), sleep apnea.

Parasomnia: abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep (NREM). Night terrors, sleepwalking.

Question 15

Consciousness-Altering Drugs: Depressants

Answer 15

Alcohol, Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines.

All increase GABA activity. All reduce NS activity –> relaxation and reduced anxiety.

Question 16

Consciousness-Altering Drugs: Stimulants

Answer 16

Amphetamines (increase DA, NE, 5-HT release at synapse and decrease reuptake), Cocaine (decrease DA, NE, 5-HT reuptake), Ecstasy.

Increase arousal of NS via increase of action potentials.

Question 17

Consciousness-Altering Drugs: Opiates

Answer 17

Morphine, Codeine.

Opioids: bind to opioid receptors in PNS, CNS –> decrease rxn to pain and sense of euphoria. Oxycodone, hydrocodone, heroin.

Naturally occurring forms of opium.

Question 18

Consciousness-Altering Drugs: Hallucinogens

Answer 18

LSD, peyote, mescaline, ketamine, shrooms, marijuana (THC acts at cannabinoid, glycine, opioid receptors –> increase GABA and DA activity).

Cause distortions of reality and fantasy, enhancement of sensory experience, and introspection.

Question 19

Types of Attention (2) (Selective and Divided)

Answer 19

Selective: filter allows us to focus on one thing while allowing other stimuli to be processed in the background. Cocktail party phenomenon.

Divided: ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time. Familiar/routine actions can be performed w/ automatic processing –> permits brain to focus on other tasks w/ divided attention.

Question 20

Components of Language: Phonology

Answer 20

The actual sound of the language. Phonemes are speech sounds.

Question 21

Components of Language: Morphology

Answer 21

The structure of words. Morphemes are building blocks of words. Redesigned = re + design + ed.

Question 22

Components of Language: Semantics

Answer 22

The associations of meaning with a word.

Question 23

Components of Language: Syntax

Answer 23

How words are put together to form a sentence.

Question 24

Components of Language: Pragmatics

Answer 24

Dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge.

Question 25

Theories of Language Development: Nativist / Biological (Chomsky)

Answer 25

There exists some innate capacity for language. A theoretical pathway in brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules. Critical/sensitive period for acquisition of/maximal development of language ~2 yrs to puberty.

Question 26

Theories of Language Development: Learning / Behaviorist (Skinner)

Answer 26

Language acquisition by operant conditioning / reinforcement.

Question 27

Theories of Language Development: Social Interactionist

Answer 27

Interplay b/w biological and social processes. Language acquisition driven by child’s desire to communicate and behave in social manner. As biological foundation for language develops + exposure –> brain groups sounds and meanings together. Interactions reinforce and de-emphasize circuits (plasticity).

Question 28

Whorfian Hypothesis of Language and Cognition (Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis)

Answer 28

Our perception of reality is determined by content of language. Language affects the way we think, not the other way around.

Question 29

Broca’s Area and Aphasia

Answer 29

Located in inferior frontal gyrus on frontal lobe, controls motor function or speech via connections w/ motor cortex.

Aphasia –> speech comprehension intact, but reduced or absent ability to produce spoken language.

Question 30

Wernicke’s Area and Aphasia

Answer 30

Located in superior temporal gyrus of temporal lobe, responsible for language comprehension.

Aphasia –> motor production and fluency of speech is retained, but speech comprehension is lost.

Question 31

Arcuate Fasciculus

Answer 31

Bundle of axons that connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas. Allows appropriate association b/w language comprehension and speech production.

Conduction aphasia –> speech production and comprehension intact, but pt unable to repeat something that has been said bc connection b/w the 2 regions is lost.