Bc.. Flashcards
Permits the designer to cast the concrete in a wide variety of shapes
Cast in place concrete
Concretes ultimate compressive strength can be varied from
2500 to 6000 PSI
Most cast in place concrete is proportioned at ——and then mixed in a——
Central bulk plants
mixing truck
If the concrete is vibrated excessively as it is placed in the forms———— results
Segregation of the aggregate
The——— of concrete is significant to firefighters
Quality
Concrete that is of poor structural quality will behave poorly under fire conditions by
Spalling and even breaking apart
The single most important factor in determining the ultimate strength of concrete is
The water to CEMENT ratio
Concrete: if too much water has been used in the mix the final product will
Not achieve its desired strength
The presence of excess moisture in the concrete produces spralling in the concrete due to
Freezing conditions or the heat of a fire
When concrete arrives at the job site it’s quality is checked by administering a test known as
Slump test
Concrete with excessive slump will
Fail the test and may be rejected by the structural engineer
Another method of testing concrete is to make small test cylinders of a concrete batch and subject them to
Compression testing
Concrete framing systems: to provide for the transfer of loads and forces from one placement to the next the reinforcement steel will
Overlap the joints
Common cast in Place structural systems
Flat slab
slab and beam
waffle construction
Flat slab concrete frame is a simple system that consist of
Concrete slab supported by concrete columns
Flat slab concrete frames: in a building that will have heavy live loads the area around the column is reinforced with additional concrete in the form of
Drop panels or mushroom capitals
Flat slab concrete frames: the slab of concrete varies in thickness from
6-12 inches
Flat slab concrete frames: if the building will support light loads additional reinforcing is not necessary. this system is known as
Flat plate
A slab and beam frame consists of a concrete slab supported by
Concrete beams
Slab and beam framing: the framing system is———-and is best suited for———–
Extremely lightweight
buildings with light floor loads
Slab and beam framing: slabs in this type of construction can sometimes be ———- inches
As thin as 2
Slab and beam framing- sometimes referred to as
Concrete joist construction
Slab and beam framing: When the concrete beams run mainly in one direction the framing is known as
One way reinforced slab
Slab and beam concrete framing can also feature concrete beams running in 2 directions. such a system is known as
Two-way slab construction
Slab and being framing: the two-way framing system is used where
spans are short and the floor loading’s are high
Buildings using———- systems are often highly susceptible to fire damage due to their thin nature
Slab and beam
Waffle construction this design provides a thicker slab while eliminating the
Weight of unnecessary concrete in the bottom half of the slab
Waffle construction: reinforcing steel placed in the bottom of formwork provides reinforcement in 2 directions. slabs of this type therefore are also known as
Two-way slabs
Some precast components such as ———–are cast at the site and moved into position
Tilt up panels
Advantages to using precast concrete
- Higher degree of quality control
- work can proceed more quickly
- precast concrete sandwich panels can be produced using poly styrene core
A major disadvantage to using precast concrete is the need to
Transport the finished components to the job site. transportation increases costs and limits the size of the SHAPES that can be precast
Precast concrete buildings can be built using whole precast modular units but it is more common to
Assemble precast parts into a framework for a building
From a construction standpoint precast concrete structures have more in common with ———-than———
Steel framed buildings
cast in place concrete buildings
Type of construction in which concrete wall sections (slabs) are cast on the concrete floor of the building and are then tilted up into the vertical position
Aka
Tilt up construction
tilt slab construction
Precast concrete slabs for floor systems can be cast in standard shapes that include
Solid slab
hollow core slab
single tee slab
double tee slab
Solid slabs are used for SHORT spans up to ———while the tee slabs can be used for stabs up to——–
Approximately 30 feet
120 feet
A common form of construction used with precast concrete is known as
Tilt up construction
In tilt up construction————- are cast at the job site in————–
Reinforced wall panels
horizontal casting beds
Tilt up: integrity of the roof is critical under fire conditions. failure of a roof can result in ——————–resulting in collapse
Outward horizontal forces against the wall
Precast structural elements are usually——- than corresponding cast in place components
Lighter
In a precast concrete structure the ———— are a critical aspect of structural engineering
Connections between the individual components
In the simplest of precast designs
Slabs need to be
Precast slabs simply rest on a bearing wall or column
Laterally tied together to resist horizontal forces
When precast beams are to be supported by columns the beams may be supported by
Corbels cast into the column
——–Is a ledge that projects from the column and supports the beam
Corbel also known as a bracket
A very common application of precast concrete is in the construction of
Parking garages
Buildings supported by concrete frame are usually enclosed by
A non-bearing curtainwall
A————–tends to conceal the structural details of a building and makes it difficult to accurately identify the structural system by observation alone
Curtain wall
It is difficult to know with certainty if a concrete frame building was constructed with
Ordinary reinforcing
or
posttensioned reinforcing
Some building systems such as————and——— may appear to be concrete when they are not
Stucco
exterior insulation finish systems (EIFS)
Non-bearing exterior wall attached to the outside of a building with a rigid steel frame. usually the front exterior wall of a building intended to provide a certain appearance
Curtain wall
———That are not properly protected can be a major contributors to the vertical spread of smoke and fire in a building
Pipe Chase also called Chase
Concrete is a fundamentally——– material that performs well under fire conditions. it is noncombustible and has good——– properties
Fire resistive
Insulating
Concrete structural elements usually retain their ——-and concrete slabs and walls act as——-
Integrity
good fire barriers
The greater the ———-over the reinforcing steel the greater it will protect the steel
Depth of concrete
Prestressed concrete systems may be somewhat ————-than ordinary reinforced concrete
More vulnerable to failure
Prestressed concrete systems may be somewhat more vulnerable to failure than ordinary reinforced concrete. this increased vulnerability is due to the fact that
The reinforcing cables and rods used in prestressed systems are made of high-strength steels that have lower your point temperatures. They can yield at a temperature of around 752°F.
Concrete structural systems can have fire resistance ratings from
1 to 4 hours
The fire resistance of a concrete assembly is affected by
- Density
- thickness
- quality
- load supported by the concrete
- depth of concrete cover over reinforcing bars
Structural lightweight concrete has a lower density than ordinary concrete and has a lower
Thermal conductivity.
better insulator
Not use for loadbearing members
Cast in place concrete buildings have an advantage over precast buildings because the——– provides an inherent restraint to movement of the intersecting members such as columns and beams.
Continuity of the assembly
Very common design used for one story Mercantile and industrial buildings
Precast wall panels that are horizontally braced by exposed steel roof beams
When openings exist in concrete slabs or walls the ability of the concrete to act as a barrier is lost unless the opening is protected by a appropriately rated assembly such as
Fire door or shutter
Just as with other types of construction concrete buildings are not designed to withstand the force of
An explosion
Spalling of concrete is caused primarily by
The expansion of the excess moisture within the concrete when it is either heated or when it FREEZES
Spalling: the expansion causes sections of the concrete surface to violently disintegrate resulting in———–or——— of the material surface
Explosive pitting
chipping destruction
As a general observation, concrete that is of——— will perform poorly when exposed to a fire
Poor quality structurally
The extent to which concrete undergoes spalling depends on ————and———–
The amount of excess moisture in the concrete
the length of time that has passed the concrete was placed
New concrete that is not completely cured is subject to ———–when exposed to a fire
More severe Spalling
The severity of Spalling also depends on the ——–and——-of the structures exposure to the fire
Duration and severity
Because concrete has relatively good insulating properties it tends to———– and ———similar to the manner in which a Masonary oven releases heat
This general affect is referred to as
Retain the heat of an exposing fire and release it slowly.
heat sink effect
Generally perform well under fire conditions
Reinforced concrete structures
Reinforced concrete structures fire resistance is affected by
The quality of the concrete
Spalling of concrete will result in failure of the—— and——-
Reinforcing bars and structural assembly
Roofs function as the———— for the interior of the building
Primary sheltering element
The significance of roofs in——-and————has long been recognized
Fire protection
firefighting operations
The combustibility of —————–was one of the first fire hazards addressed in the earliest fire regulations adopted in colonial America
thatched roofs
In modern times fires that communicate from building to building by way of ————-continue to plague some communities
Combustible wood shake shingles
Today more roofs are being used as part of ——-with solar panels and even gardens
Green design
———in particular represent a new element of safety hazard during emergency operations
Solar panels
Firefighters have to work on roofs either to——– or——-
Combat a fire involving a roof
ventilate the products of combustion from within the structure
Sometimes it is desirable to use a roof as a ———-for attacking a fire involving a neighboring structure
Vantage point
Firefighters must be familiar with all aspects of roof construction including
- Materials
- means of support
- architectural styles
and such functional aspects as the use of a roof to support ventilation equipment
Fundamental safety points regarding roofs
- Not as strong as floors
- inherent concealed spaces between the ceiling and roof deck
- over time loads maybe added to the roof
- subject to wear and deterioration from the elements
The fact that a roof is a———— can frustrate efforts to control a fire from above
Waterproof covering for a building
If the roof collapses into a structure it will form a
Waterproof covering over buried fire
From a firefighting standpoint the roofs of buildings can be classified into three styles:
Flat pitched and curved
Flat roofs are found on ALL types of buildings including
Large area warehouses, factories, shopping centers, and schools
It is possible to construct a roof that is completely horizontal but this design presents a
Drainage problem
Many flat roofs are provided with a slight slope typically from
Front to rear to facilitate drainage
Many large buildings have roofs sloped towards drains in the
Center of the roof
Flat roofs: master stream: may overload the roof structure and
Cause it to collapse
———-Are the easiest roofs on which firefighters can work
Flat roofs
——can provide a false sense of security and are not without potential dangers
Flat roofs
Pitched roofs have inclined surfaces. they may be categorized into
Low slope roofs
and
medium to High slope roofs
Bc: Low slope roofs have a slope of
Tactics: on low pitch roofs( —to—-) a power saw may be used to make the cut
3 to 12, meaning for each 12 units of horizontal dimension the roof slopes upward 3 units
15 to 20°
Medium to high slope roofs have slopes of
4/12 to 12/12
A slope of 12/12 equates to
45° angle
Tactics: Balloon frame: the second floor joists rest on a small board (1x4inches) that is notched into the upright 2x4s called a
BC ballon frame: the joists that support the second floor are supported by ————that are recessed into the vertical stud
Ledger board
Ribbon board
If allowed to remain motionless for approximately ———–emit a low-level pre-alarm
go into full alarm approximately ———-after the pre-alarm sounds
30 sec
5-10 sec
Some structures such as certain churches and mansions have roofs with slopes of
18/12 or greater-too steep to work from a roof ladder
Pitched roofs are designed in a number of styles that are determined by
Climate
function
aesthetic considerations
Several commonly encountered pitched roof styles include
Gable hip gambrel mansard butterfly monitor saw tooth
Simplest pitched roof
Shed roof
Very common roof style that consist of two inclined services that meet at their highside to form a RIDGE
Gable roof
Style of pitched roof with squared ends in which the end walls of the building form triangular areas beneath the roof
Gabled roof
Pitched roof that has no gables. all facets of the roof slope down from the peak to an outside wall
Hip roof
Style of gabled roof on which each side slopes at two different angles. often used on barns and similar structures
Gambrel roof
Roof style with characteristics similar to both Gambrel and hip roofs. have slopes of two different angles and all sides slope down to an outside wall
Mansard roof
The v-shaped roof style resembling to opposing shed roofs joined along their lower edges
Butterfly roof
Slopes in four directions and has a degree of slope similar to the gable roof
Hip roof
Slope in two directions but there will be a break in the slope on each side. they are functional because the space created by the roof can be used as an attic or living space
Gambrel roof
Has a break in the slope of the roof on all four sides. can also be constructed with a FLAT DECK in which case is sometimes known as a———
Mansard roof
modern mansard or deck roof
Forms a projection beyond the building wall that creates a concealed space through which a fire can communicate
Mansard style roof
————Is sometimes added to the front of a flat roof building as an architectural detail
False mansard front
Firefighters may be exposed to danger while working under these structures which can collapse in large sections
Roof style that slopes in two directions- basically two shed roofs that meet at their low leaves
Butterfly roof
Room style similar to EXAGGERATED LANTERN ROOF having a raised section along the Ridge line providing additional natural light and ventilation
Monitor roof
Characterized by a series of alternating vertical walls and sloping roofs
Sawtooth roof
This type of roof is most often found on older industrial buildings to provide light and ventilation
Sawtooth roof
Designed to provide light and ventilation. were once very commonly used on factory buildings. Raised central section of the roof extends several feet above the surrounding roof surface
Monitor roof
Monitor roof: the vertical sides of this monitor section which are normally openable windows are known as
Clerestories
Sawtooth roofs: ideally the glass vertical sections should face north because the——– is more constant during the day and ———-can be avoided
Northern light
glare of the sun
A pitched roof is designed to
Shed water and snow
The pitch of a roof presents a major hazard to firefighters because the steepness of the roof results in
A lack of secure footing
The steepness of the roof result in a lack of secure footing, this hazard is increased when the roof is wet or covered with ice but also exist when the roof is dry because of
The loose or granular texture of some roof coverings
Curved roofs take their form from
The structural system used to support them
Curved roofs are most frequently supported by
Arches and bowstring trusses
When the area to be enclosed by the roof is circular a ————can be used
Dome
A dome can be thought of as an
Arch rotated 360°
A dome roof produces structural forces similar to those of an arch. that is ————exist at the base and a ————-exist at the top
Horizontal thrusts
compressive force
More architecturally spectacular curved roofs can be created using
Geodesic domes
lamalla arches
Special form of arched roof constructed of short pieces of wood
Lamella arch
Lamellas vary from
2x8-3x16
8-14 ft
The short Lamellas are bolted together in a diagonal pattern with a special plate known as a
“Lamella washer”
The curvature of the lamella arch results from the———– of the ends of the individual Lamellas
Beveling (inclining)
A geodesic dome is created using
Spheric triangulation
A geodesic dome can be constructed from
Wood steal concrete as well as plywood bamboo aluminum
A dormer is frequently provided in buildings with pitched roofs to————–by———-
Increasing the usable space in the attic by increasing the light and ventilation
Often become living space
Dormers
The traditional wood joisted roof uses solid wood joists that tend to lose their strength gradually as they burn. this loss of strength results in the roof becoming ————especially with a—————-
Soft or spongy before failure
wood to plank roof deck
In general firefighters should view any indication of advanced or heavy fire development as a warning sign that
The roof is weakening
In modern practice——————— are often used to support flat roofs
Box beams and I-beams manufactured from plywood
and
wood trust joists
The ———- of truss joists also permits the rapid spread of fire and directions perpendicular to the truss joists instead of simply going along the long dimension of the member
Open web design
Depending on the ——–unprotected lightweight open web joists can be expected to fail quickly in a fire
Fuel load with an occupancy
Because roofs are designed for lighter live loads than floors are it is not unusual for the MODERN FLAT roof to ————-noticeably as personnel walk across them
Deflect or vibrate
Flat roofs usually must be designed to support the weight of at least
A few workers so they can be accessed safely for maintenance
—————Are an indication of lightweight roof construction and firefighters should view such construction cautiously
The deflexion and vibration
A variation of the flat roof is a type known as the inverted roof. Inverted roofs differ from conventional roofs primarily in the location of
Their main roof beams
The design of the inverted roof creates a ———————–between the ceiling in the roof deck
Concealed space that may be several feet in height
Incline joist used to support some types of PITCHED roofs
Rafter
Rafters are the standard supports used in
Shed gable hip gambrel mansard style roofs
The basic design of a raftered roof results in
An outward thrust against the walls similar to the action of an arch
The outward thrust of the rafters is resisted by———— or——–
Ceiling or attic floor joists
collar beams that are in tention
If the architect desires to leave the underside of the roof exposed without joists————- must be used to support the rafters
A structural ridge beam
Inclined beam that supports a roof, runs parallel to the slope of the roof to which the roof decking is attached
Rafter
Would rafters vary in size from ———.
They can be spaced from———-depending on————-
2 x 4 to 2x14
12 to 24 inches apart
the span and design load
Very common roof support system
Trusses
All of its cords and diagonal members lie in the same plane. this configuration is typical of lightweight trusses
Monoplane truss
Ceilings are often suspended from a roof truss creating concealed spaces between———– and————-
The top and bottom chords
throughout the ceiling to the roof
——-Use a curved top chord. once commonly used for roofs and many remain in use
Bowstring trusses
Bowstring truss with a laminated top chord uses
Split ring connectors at all joints except the heel plates located at the ends of the truss
(Wood and steel trusses) ————–trusses are the most common types used for pitched roofs
Fink and Pratt-style
If a truss is too large to be transported as one unit it can be
Moved in sections and connected in the field
Because arches may be constructed from ————the behavior of the roof supported by an arch is basically determined by ———–
Masonary
laminated wood
steal
the material from which the arch is constructed
Laminated wood arches will behave much like——–
steel truss arches will react to a fire in a manner similar to a——-
Laminated beams
steel truss
There is one characteristic of some arch supported roofs that can cause a catastrophic failure under fire conditions. failure of the ————–will permit the arches to spread outward and the roof will collapse
Tie rods
Some arch roofs use a ———between the two ends of the arc to resist the ———–of the arch
Steel tie rod
outward thrust
The deck of a roof is the portion of roof construction to which the ————–is applied
Roof covering or “roofing”
The components of roof decks include
Sheathing
roof planks or slabs
purlins
Sometimes as in———- the roof deck serves as the roof support
Concrete deck roofs
————–Is frequently used in applications where is serves as both the deck and the exterior roof covering
Corrugated steel decking
A roof deck must be stiff enough that it does not———— under anticipated loads
Deflect excessively
From a construction standpoint the deck material should be ————-so that any insulation or roof covering can be attached
Clean and smooth
WOOD PANEL DECKING may have a thickness of——–inch on supports on ———— inches on center
1/2
24
WOOD PLANKS will have a minimum———–inch nominal thickness
1
Corrugated steel used in roof decking ranges from ———-the thinnest to ———–the thickest. The overall depth ranges from———
29 gauge
12 gauge
3/4”-2”
Corrugated steel decking can be used with a sheet of flat steel welded to the bottom to form——-
Cellar decking
(Roof deck materials)
gypsum has the advantage of being——–
“Nailable”
(Roof deck materials) PRECAST concrete can be made nailable by——–
Choosing appropriate aggregate
(Roof deck materials) —————–are not nailable
Cast in place concrete decks
When cast in place concrete is used as a roof deck some provision must be made for
Attaching the roof to the deck
If a multi story building is to have a FLAT roof the usual practice is to ———————because it is more economical.
It is possible to encounter exceptions to this general rule especially where————
Use the same structural system for the roof and the floors
And additional story has been added to an older building
————–Provides the water resistant barrier for the roof system
The roof covering
The type of roof covering used depends on
- form of the roof structure
- slope
- Local climate
- appearance desired
Hail can puncture
Asphalt shingles and roll roofing
Final outside cover that is placed on top of a roof deck assembly. includes composition or wood shake shingles, tile, slate, tin, or asphalt tarpaper
Roof covering
Overtime roofs are repaired and resurfaced meaning that firefighters may encounter more than one layer of ———on a given roof
Roof covering
Watertight material used to prevent the passage of moisture and water vapor into and through walls or roofs or in the case of personal protective equipment that prevents water from penetrating the clothing
Vapor barrier
Because flat roof drain more slowly than pitched roofs they usually require—————–than pitched roofs
More complex roof covering assemblies
A FLAT roof usually consists of several component layers that include the following
Vapor barrior thermal insulation roofing membrane drainage layer wear course
The vapor barrier is designed to reduce the diffusion of——- into the———
Interior moisture
insulation layer
A vapor barrier is needed when the average outdoor temperature———–and the indoor relative temperature is———
Below 40°
45% or greater at 68°
Reduces heat loss through the roof
Thermal insulation
Consists of a waterproof material that keeps out rain and snow from the interior of the building
Membrane of a roof
—–Roof covering that consists of a single layer of a waterproof synthetic membrane over one or more layers of insulation on a roof deck. also called——-
Membrane roof
single ply roof
—— use several overlapping layers of roofing felt saturated with a bituminous material that may be either tar or asphalt.
Builds up membranes
The three general categories of membranes used are
- Built up roof membranes
- single ply membranes
- fluid applied membranes
(Built up membranes) the number of layers of roofing felt varies but ———-layers is a common design
4
(Built up membranes) roofing felt usually is supplied in rolls ——- ft wide
3
Built-up roofs usually last for ———–if the manufacturer specifications are followed
20 years
———Roof consist of a single membrane laid in sheets on the roof deck
Single ply membrane
Single ply membranes are made from several materials. the most common is a
Synthetic rubber material (EPDM)
External covering on a roof that protects the roof from mechanical damage. the typical tar and gravel roof uses gravel
Wear course
—————-Are useful for buildings with curved roof surfaces such as domes that would be difficult to cover with other materials
Fluid applied membranes
Fluid applied membranes. usually——– coatings are applied
Several
The ——— permits the free movement of rainwater to the roof drains
Drainage layer
Depending on ——————the drainage layer can be the ballast layer in a single ply roofing system, a drainage fabric, or the aggregate used in a built up roofing system
The membrane material used
Protects the roof from mechanical abrasion
Wear course
Built-up roofs that use gravel as the wear course are commonly known as
“Tar and gravel roofs”
When a———– is used for the wear course it also increases the resistance of the roof to ignition by———
Gravel surface
flaming brands from adjacent buildings
Because the force of gravity is constantly pulling at the roof, the coverings used on a pitched roof must always be———– and provision must be made for this on the roof deck.
Secured to the roof deck or roof support
Roof coverings used on pitched roof’s are generally one of two broad categories
Shingle or tile roofs
metal roofs
(Shingles and tiles) their small size allows for movement between individual units cause by—–
Thermal expansion
And
shifting of the building structural system
The difference between wood shingles and shakes is
Their method of production
Thin tapered slabs of wood that are sawn from pieces of tree lumber
What shingles
Split from the wood either by hand or by machine and are thicker than shingles
Shakes
——-Produced from heavy sheets of asphalt impregnated felt made from rag, paper, or wool fiber. —————-is becoming common
Asphalt shingles
asphalt impregnated fiberglass felt
Asphalt shingles are available in several sizes but the most common size is
12x36”
Produced from hard rock that has a tendency to split along one plane
Slate
Slate Is a very durable material and can have a life expectancy of—-
150 years
Roof framing and decking that is heavier than normal may be required if ———is to be used
Slate
8-36 lbs/sq ft
Ancient material known to have been used for thousands of years
Clay tile
The ———-clay tiles are known as———–& are used to create imitation or genuine Spanish style architecture
Curved
“mission” tiles
Are frequently made to look like clay tile, slate, or even wood in color and texture
Concrete tiles
A major advantage of concrete tiles over wood tiles is
Their greater longevity
Shingles and tiles are usually attached to the roof with
Corrosion resistant nails
——-Are installed in an overlapping manner so that only about one third of the length of the shingle is actually exposed to the weather
Wood tiles
——–Are usually installed over and underlayment, which is a layer of roofing felt or synthetic covering
Asphalt shingles
——–Are popular architecturally because they produce a rustic appearance and maybe more resistant to wind damage than asphalt shingles
Wood roof shingles and shakes
(Wood roof shingles and shakes) their disadvantage is that
They pose a serious fire potential
What shingles and shakes can be ————–to reduce their combustibility and to meet model code requirements
Pressure impregnated with a fire retardant solution
Fire retardant shingles and shakes are shipped to the job site with
A paper label identifying them
Painting or staining fire retardant shingles or shakes can reduce the effect of the fire retardant especially if——
Oil-based materials are used
Asphalt shingles are fundamentally
Combustible
Asphalt shingles used for roofs are typically produced with a ————-that reduces their ease of ignition and permits their use under the provisions of building code
Grit surface
———–Are noncombustible and produce fire resistant roof coverings that have excellent resistance to flying brands.
Clay
Slate &
Cement tiles
The surface can become slippery posing a serious fall hazard. proper equipment and caution should be used at all times
Clay slate and cement tiles
Corrugated sheets of aluminum or steel are widely used on —————buildings
Metal roofs are also found on many buildings
Industrial and agricultural
Residential and commercial
——-Are generally strong enough to be installed without decking
In these cases the roofing sheets are supported by———
Corrugated roofing sheets
roof beams or purlins
(Metal roof coverings) the spacing between purlins can be from
2-6 ft
(Metal roof coverings)
———– are nailed to a deck beneath.
Flat roof coverings
One problem with metal roofing is the potential for ———when dissimilar metals are in contact
Galvanic action
Because of the severe fire danger that———- can pose, building codes impose restrictions on the combustibility of roofs of certain buildings occupancies or locations
Combustible roofs
The fire hazards of roof coverings are evaluated by test procedures contained in ———–standard method of fire test of roof coverings also designated as————
NFPA 256
ASTM E-108
(NFPA 256/ASTM E-108)
The test stimulates several fire exposure conditions for fires originating
Originating Outside a building
In the test Samples of roof coverings are attached to a wooden deck measuring
3ft 4in by 4ft 4in
There are six separate test procedures contained in NFPA 256. they include:
Intermittent flame burning brant flying brand rain weathering spread of flame
If the properties of a specific roof covering material are————- more than the minimum number of tests contained in NFPA 256 may be required
Subject to variation
Roof coverings that pass the required test procedures are classified
A B or C
(Fire ratings of roof coverings) the three classifications are based on the ---------------- class A roof coverings are effective against --------- class B roof coverings are effective against ----------- class C roof coverings are effective against -------------
Severity of fire the material can withstand
Severe
moderate
light
(Class ABC )
building codes use these three classifications to control
The flammability of roofs
Laboratories that test————–, such as underwriters laboratory publish a list of ————that have passed in NFPA 256 with their classifications in a manner similar to that of the fires resistance ratings described in chap 2
Roof coverings
roof coverings
A——Is a buildings first line of defense against the elements
Roof
A second roof constructed over an existing roof
Rain roof
When a fire enters this space. it can travel undetected in several directions and is exceptionally hard to ACESS and EXTINGUISH. the existence of two separate roofs can also impede rapid and effective VENTILATION.
Rain roof
A ——— involves the use of the roof surface as a building for a rooftop garden
Green ROOF
(Green roofs)
probably the greatest benefit is the increase in air-quality due to the ———–particularly in———
Oxygen-carbon dioxide exchange of growing plants
Urban areas
The layer of Earth required for a rooftop garden vary from
A few inches to 1 or 2 feet
(Green roof/rooftop garden)
depending on the depth of the soil been dead load can vary from
20 lb/sq ft
To
150 lb/sq ft
when a garden is planned for an existing roof the———– must be analyzed to ensure it’s adequacy
Existing structural system
(Green roof/rooftop garden)
obviously under fire conditions the increased load can hasten structural failure,particularly if ————Greenroofs can also interfere with———- and——–
The roof is combustible
ventilation practices
fire location indicators
A —————system produces clean and reliable energy that can be used in a wide variety of applications
Photovoltaic (solar energy)
(Solar energy)
————–can be laid on top of a roof or embedded in the roof
Photovoltaic cells in panels
Although solar energy represents a clean source of energy the ————-generated by the operation of the solar system represents a significant hazard For firefighters.
Electricity
Photovoltaic roofs
even if power to the building is shut off the—— retain a significant amount of energy
Panels
It is not safe to break photovoltaic cells or skylights that are
Actually solar powered
Photovoltaic roofs
the—— represent a significant tripping and falling hazard
Panels themselves
(Photovoltaic roofs)
In emergency conditions electrical shock, inhalation exposure, falls from roofs, and roof collapsed always represent serious safety considerations. for these reasons it is crucial that fire department——-
Conduct thorough preincident planning to identify the structures
(Photovoltaic roofs)
the fire department must preplan for————-on specific commercial and industrial buildings in their jurisdiction.
Structural emergencies
Air supported roof structures are often used in
Sports arenas and at colleges and universities
——–Provide protection from the elements and enable year-round use of the area under the roof
Air supported roofs
Air supported roofs
a typical use with this type of structure would be a
Sports practice facility
Air supported roofs
having doors open to provide firefighting access for lengthy periods could result in
Slow deflation of the structure
The structure of a roof is frequently penetrated for a number of reasons, such as for
Penthouses
skylights
vents
Roof hatches
Structure on the roof of a building that may be used as a living space, to enclose mechanical equipment, or to provide roof access from an interior stairway.
Penthouse
Room or building built on the roof which usually covers stairways or houses elevator machinery, and contains water tanks and/or hearing and cooling equipment. also called a bulkhead
Penthouse
Small structure erected on the main roof of a building
Penthouse
“bulkhead”
When a STAIRWELL is provided with a———– firefighters can gain rapid access to the roof to combat fires at the ROOF LEVEL
Rooftop penthouse
Any of a variety of roof structures or devices intended to increase natural illumination within buildings in rooms or over stairways and other vertical shafts that extend to the roof
Skylights
Some penthouses may not be directly accessible from——— and must accessed from——-
This is frequently the case with penthouses built for——
The Inside of a building
the roof
Elevator and mechanical equipment
Skylights are sometimes provided with ———to facilitate normal building ventilation
operable glass panes
For safety purposes building codes require———- in skylights
Wired glass or tempered glass
Skylights on modern buildings can be——
Plastic domes
Skylights provide a rapid means of ventilating heat and smoke but they usually do not have a provision for——–
Automatic venting
Skylights that feature———- must be approached with caution
Photovoltaic strips
The underside of a roof can be left exposed or have a ceiling installed depending on the ———of a building
Use and interior design
———-are usually built without ceilings
Warehouse and industrial buildings
————as a distinct building component usually do not play a structural role
Ceilings
Ceilings can be designed to control the ———-and the——— in a room
Diffusion of light
distribution of air
It is not uncommon for————- to have a new ceiling installed beneath an existing ceiling as a means of creating——–
Older buildings
new interior decor
Ceilings
the concealed space created in ———–may conceal the type of roof structure above
Fire resistive
or
noncombustible construction
The extent of fire development in roof spaces is hidden by———
this uncertainly complicates———-firefighting
A ceiling
interior
The combustibility of a roof can affect the communication of fire from—–
Building to building
A roof typically is not designed to support the same amount of——— as a floor; consequently——–should always be viewed very cautiously by firefighters
Live load
Roofs
Some newer types of roofs that feature photovoltaic cells may be too dangerous to ————without excessively endangering firefighters
Support roof operations
Breaking windows on the upper floors of a building requires
Careful coordination
Before windows are broken or any debris is released from an upper floor an——-needs to be established
All clear
———–And———need to be aware of what crews are doing at all times
Division commanders
company officers
Constant emphasis on ——–is a must
Safe practices
In the———- high-rise buildings existed primarily in larger cities
Early part of the 20th century
By the——– high-rises began to be constructed in many medium-sized communities
Second half of the 20th century
Today———- may be constructed in almost any community
Tall buildings
The growing proliferation of ————–poses a potential problem for almost any———;
———– are among the most challenging the fire department will face
High-rise buildings
fire official
high-rise incidents
High-rise buildings
———-can result in fires burning for extended periods before firefighters can complete staging and begin operations
Difficulty in gaining access
High-rise building
emergency operations require a greater level of ——-due to the large number of resources and personnel needed
Coordination
From a fire protection standpoint a high-rise building is any building that is beyond the effective reach of
Fire equipment located at street level
High rise- Any building that requires———on levels above the reach of fire department equipment often generally given as a building ————in height
Firefighting
more than 75 feet
Model building codes define a high-rise building as a building—-
This height is measured from the ————to the——–
More than 75 feet in height
Lowest level of emergency vehicle access
to
the floor of the highest occupied story
A jurisdiction may, because of limitations in firefighting resources, define a high-rise building as one—-
Exceeding 50 feet or five stories in height
The most obvious aspect of a high-rise building is that—————- are not possible beyond a certain height
Exterior means of fire attack and rescue
As ————–occupant safety and firefighting become increasingly dependent on the features of the building itself
Building height increases
As the firefighter becomes more dependent on ————-preincident planning takes on an even more important aspect of fire ground operations
Built in features
As the firefighter becomes more dependent on built-in features, ———–takes on an even more important aspect of fire ground operations
Pre-incident planning
High-rise buildings as they are known today began to be constructed———–
At the end of the 19th century
High-rise buildings as they are known today began to be constructed at the end of the 19th century. These buildings were made possible and practical by two developments:
Steel frame construction
the elevator
Without ——–the upper floors of a tall building become virtually inaccessible
Elevators
Buildings constructed —————–did not have the HVAC systems routinely provided today
75 or 80 years ago
Early high-rise buildings made use of——————- that permitted the vertical communication of products of combustion
Open stairwells and elevator shafts
The first model building codes that were introduced in the———– required——–
1920s and 1930s
Stairs and elevators to be enclosed
Most deadly fire in US history
Winecoff hotel fire
Automatic sprinklers and communication systems were not commonly provided until
The last quarter of the 20th century
The most significant and obvious feature of modern high-rise buildings is
Their height
The earliest high-rise buildings were rarely more than
10 or 12 stories
In the 1920s and 1930s several buildings were constructed exceeding
40 stories
New Yorks Empire State building
102 stories
constructed in 1930
Today buildings exceeding——– stories have become commonplace
60
Newer high-rise buildings often have
Multiple occupancies
Modern high-rise buildings
contemporary buildings ARE designed with ——-and MANY buildings are constructed without—–
Sophisticated HVAC systems
operable windows
Modern high-rise buildings
the fire department should arrange to meet with someone involved with the———– at the emergency scene for assistance with———
Engineering staff
building operations
Today high-rise buildings are of ———-construction
Fire resistive
Often a high-rise building will be constructed of a combination of
Reinforced concrete
protected steel frame
———–Often have a ———-housing the elevator shafts with the remainder of the frame being steel
Tall buildings
reinforced concrete core
Typically model building codes require ———– hour fire resistance for the structural frame of a high-rise building depending on the———— & ———-hour fire resistance for floor construction
2-3
Number of stories and occupancies
2
High rise construction
In reinforced concrete construction the floors will be——-
In steelframe buildings the floors will be———
Concrete slab
lightweight structural concrete placed over corrugated steel
The fire resistive construction used in high-rise buildings provides a high degree of—–
Structural integrity
Significant structural failure in high-rise buildings is
Extremely rare
Model building codes require several fire protection features for high-rise buildings these features always include:
- Automatic sprinklers
- voice evacuation system
- fire department communication system
and often some form of
-smoke control
Since the ———building codes have routinely required that high-rise buildings be equipped with automatic sprinkler systems as well as standpipe systems
Mid-1970s
Sprinkler and standpipe systems are typically supplied from
The Same vertical riser
(Sprinkler and standpipe systems) will be supplied by ——–located in the BASEMENT of the building
One or more fire pumps
In SEISMIC zones a ———–is required usually in the form of a—–
Secondary on-site water supply
storage tank
The——– in a high-rise building will be provided with individual floor control valves
Sprinkler system
———are a crucial aspect of fire protection in high-rise buildings
Standpipes
In buildings up to ———it might be possible to advance hose lines manually up stairwells
9-10 stories
The taller the building the more that FIREFIGHTING OPERATIONS are dependent on
the availability of standpipes
One on unavoidable problem with standpipe systems is
The variation of pressure with building height
HYDROSTATIC pressure
300 foot tall building the pressure variation been to elevation would be
130 psi
NFPA 14 installation of standpipe and hose systems-requires ———-to be installed at hose connections where the static pressure at a 1 1/2 inch hose connection exceeds 100 psi or when the static pressure exceeds 175 psi at larger outlets
Pressure regulating devices
(Pressure regulating devices)
————should verify that these devices are properly set at the time of the original installation
Fire inspectors
Pressure regulating devices
periodic test should be conducted to verify——-
Their proper maintenance
It is not unusual for taller high-rise buildings to have a population of————
for this reason the model building and fire codes require———– in high-rise buildings
Several thousand people
fire alarm systems
In a high-rise building it is not unusual for a fire alarm system to include————
the fire alarm systems provide ————-communication
Several hundred devices
alarm and emergency
Many modern high-rise buildings have——— alarm systems that automatically sound an alert followed by ——–on activation of any detector, waterflow device, or manual pull station
Voice
voice instructions
Voice evacuation systems are often zoned by—-
Floor
It is not uncommon to evacuate only - - - rather than the entire building
Floor of origin
floor above
floor below
Smoke detection in high-rise buildings typically includes——— arranged to prevent recirculation of smoke to other floors
Duct detectors
-
To initiate elevator recall
Elevator machine rooms
elevator lobbies
So model codes require Corridor smoke detectors in
Residential occupancies
All of these detection devices along with waterflow switches are required to be monitored through the
Fire alarm system
Smoke detectors in———- are not monitored through the fire alarm system
Individual residential units
Another unique fire alarm feature in high-rises is the requirement for a
Two-way fire department communication system
——-are often provided in the fire command center
Spare telephone handsets
Prior to the 1970s few if any buildings had any provisions for
Mechanical smoke control
Smoke control systems
a common approach using the mechanical equipment was called a
“Pressure sandwich” concept
This approach exhausted the floor of fire origin and pressurized the floors immediately above and below to contain the smoke to the floor of origin
Pressure sandwich
Model building codes currently do not require special mechanical smoke removal provisions from the
Floor of origin
All model building codes require————— in all stairs serving 75 feet or higher
Smoke proof exit enclosures
Stairs serving floor 75 feet or higher
entrance to the stairways must be made through an
Open balcony
or
pressurized vestibule
Because of the changes in building codes especially since the 1970s it is important that each fire department survey all high-rise buildings in their jurisdiction to determine if these buildings have
Any smoke control provisions
and
how they work
The model building codes require a room or area in a high-rise building to serve as a
The location of the space must be approved by
Fire command center
The fire department
Typically a fire command center is located
On the first floor
or
level of fire department access
Often an enclosed room separated from the remainder of the building by one hour fire rated construction
Fire command center
It should be emphasized that not all fire command centers look and act alike. it is important that panels and other equipment be———- to facilitate use by firefighters
Properly labeled
The FLOOR PLAN of a high-rise building will vary with ——–and other factors such as——-
Occupancy
site constraints
Many high-rise buildings, especially office buildings and hotels are designed with a—–
“Central core” floor plan
In central core configuration such building services as——- are grouped in the center of the floor
Elevators
stairwells
service shafts
The fire resistive construction of a high-rise buildings provides a certain degree of——— and ———to the vertical extension of fire and smoke
Inherent compartmentalization
barriers
The——– in———are designed to provide for the management of products of combustion
HVAC systems
high-rise buildings
One means of vertical extension of fire in a high-rise building is by exterior communication from floor to floor. this is particularly likely where——
A glass curtain wall extends from floor to ceiling
The horizontal extension of fire in a high-rise building will depend on the extent to which a floor is
Subdivided by partitions
The firefighter especially needs to be familiar with———and ———- when confronted with responses to fires in high-rise buildings
Phase 1 operations (recall)
and
phase 2 operations (override)
The use of——— by emergency responders during a fire event is always dangerous
Elevators
Know the——– on the elevator control panel that indicates an impending elevator problem
Visual signal
High-rise buildings for many years have had a minimum of ——-elevator car on——
1
Emergency power
Never use a ——damaged elevator
Fire or heat
Never use an elevator that has been exposed to
Water
Become familiar with the emergency procedures required to operate elevators by training on
Actual local systems
The elevator code requires a——– where the elevator hoistway OR elevator room is protected by automatic sprinklers. This arrangement will shut down the power to the ———-before——–
Shut trip
Elevator
a sprinkler discharges water on the elevator equipment
Codes contain mandatory provisions for the recall of all———- with vertical travel greater than———- in the event of fire. (called phase 1 operations)
Passenger elevators
25 feet
The automatic recall of elevators to the terminal floor or an alternate floor can be caused by the activation of
Smoke detectors
or
sprinkler waterflow alarms
Phase 1 can be activated manually by
A keyed switch in the terminal floor lobby
Emergency operating mode for elevators. recalls the car to a certain floor and opens the doors
Phase 1 operation
———Is designed to prevent the deaths of civilians who may find themselves in an elevator that is called to the fire floor as happened in high-rise fires in the 1970s
Phase 1 operation
Phase 1 operation automatically stops all cars that ——–if they are——–
Serve the fire floor
moving away from the terminal floor (the lobby)
Phase 1 operation causes the cars to return nonstop to the lobby or other designated level if —-
The alarm originated from the lobby
The requirement for recall does not apply to
Freight elevators
At the lobby the fire department must account for each car to be certain that there are no civilians trapped in a—-
Stalled car at or above the fire floor
At the lobby the fire department must account for each car to be certain that there are no civilians trapped in a stalled car at or above the fire floor. this can be accomplished by checking the———– that is usually adjacent to the elevator bank
Elevator control and information panel
Phase 1 operation————- when the car reaches the recall floor
Opens the car doors and keeps them open
During phase 1 operation the elevator cars ———-buttons are rendered inoperative
Emergency stop
and
floor selection
Phase II elevator operation is designed to permit firefighters to use the elevators after they arrive on the scene by—-
Overriding the recall feature
The codes specify that all new elevators must be equipped for
Phase II operation
Emergency elevator operating mode that allows emergency use of the elevator with certain safeguards and special functions
Phase II operation
Typically to activate phase II operation, a firefighter must insert a key in a ———-within a car to place that particular car in——-
Three position switch
“fire service”
Phase 11 operation
the elevator doors do not open automatically and the operator must——
Push the “door open” button in the car
The ———-which prevents the doors from closing if there is a person or smoke in the doorway is disabled during———
Electric eye safety
phase II operations
the —————that was interoperable in phase 1 should be operable during phase II
Emergency stop button
Phase II operations
because the car controls are————- it is important that a firefighter remain in the car
Operable only from within the car
The classification as an underground building usually applies to ————–or portions of the building that are——
Below grade buildings
deeper than ordinary basements
An underground building is defined by some codes as one in which the lowest level used for human occupancy is———– below the———-
30 feet
main exit that serves that level
With the current trend toward————– there are many more —————- buildings being built or planned
Sustainable (green) building design
underground
-
-
Security
Relatively constant temperatures
smaller visual impact
Older underground buildings were usually accessed from ——–grade level however some modern underground buildings are being built into the side of Hills with the primary access being——
Vertically
horizontal
Emergencies in underground facilities pose very difficult problems for firefighters. specific difficulties include: - - - -
Access
rescue and evacuation
ventilation
water supply and drainage
———-Is probably the greatest single challenge in controlling fires in underground buildings
The difficulty in venting heat and smoke
It is critical that these structures be thoroughly preplanned and that the plans be kept current
Underground buildings
Underground buildings
knowing how to——– and ———-will be crucial for a coordinated emergency response
Gain access
remove occupants
Firefighting can be extremely difficult when a facility is located———– or more below grade and the only access is by means of——–
100 feet
stairwells or elevators
Evacuations of occupants from underground locations is more difficult than in high-rise buildings because of the greater physical exertion required for occupants going up stairs and the——
Greater potential for a stairwell being filled with smoke from the fire below
————Are now required for buildings with levels more than———–below the level of exit discharge
Smoke proof enclosure’s
30 feet
The structural system of an underground facility is ———compared to the framing system used for aboveground buildings
Massive
Underground buildings
The maximum available fire protection is typically ——–therefore fires exceeding ——–are a serious threat
Four hours
Underground buildings
one typical requirement is that the underground portion of the building be of ———–construction
Fire resistive
Where buildings have floor levels more than ———below the level of the exit discharge, separation of each level into———— may be required.
-
60 feet
two approximately equally sized compartments
- 1 stair
- access into the other compartment
Underground buildings
to address the problem of ventilation of smoke and heat, model codes often require a
Smoke exhaust system
Buildings with limited access
emergency access openings are typically required on a minimum of ——–sides of———- floors of these buildings
2
Upper
Buildings with limited access
———– are typically required on a minimum of two sides of upper floors of these buildings
Emergency access openings
As with underground buildings it is important that ————— be carefully preplanned and that preincident plans we kept current
Buildings with limited access
Many public buildings have also been hardened against terrorists attacks or simply wayward drivers. these structures often have ———–and other barriers that make firefighter access more complicated
Concrete pillars
Buildings with limited access
regular inspections on these properties are important to ensure that ———–are not obstructed on the——— of the building
Emergency access openings
interior
Membrane structure is a building having its exterior skin consist of——–
A thin “waterproof” fabric
These types of buildings are becoming more common in part due to economical factors and speed of construction
Membrane structures
Membrane structures come in various forms including - - - -
Air inflated
air supported
membrane covered cable
membrane covered frame
Several major sports stadiums have been built with —–over the stadium itself
Air supported membrane domes
Often used to accommodate recreational uses
Membrane structures
Membrane structures
a major advantage of both structures is that they can be used to provide a
Large unobstructed interior space
Membrane structures rely on air pressure to form the shape
Air inflated
air supported
Are not pressurized and rely on the cable or frame configuration to form the shape
Membrane covered cable and frame structures
In an——— the roof is made of a vinyl coated polyester fabric material
It is held up by an——– that keeps a constant supply of air in the structure
Air supported structure
Air machine
Air supported structure
the pressure required is a small fraction——— of on the order of——-
Atmospheric pressure
0.35 psi
Membrane structure that is fully or partially held up by interior air pressure
Air supported structure
Air supported structure
if power is lost the roof may eventually collapse, therefore a ———must be provided by a——–
Redundant air supply
standby generator
Modern air supported roofs have computer-controlled air supply systems that adjust for varying ——-
External wind loads
Air supported
because the interior pressure is greater than the exterior pressure cables are frequently used to anchor the roof to the——
Ground or substructure
———–Buildings make use of a membrane that weighs only———- a for the building skin.
This limitation does not apply to ———structures because the occupants are not exposed to any interior pressure
Air supported
few ounces per square foot
Air inflated
Limitation to both types of structures (air inflated/air supported) is they cannot be used in situations where ——–construction is required
Fire rated
Because of the——– required to maintain the shape of an——– it is necessary to securely anchor the structure to some type of foundation
Uplift
air supported structure
———- are sometimes vulnerable to High winds and in some cases have been blown down in a High wind
Air inflated and air supported structures
When exterior winds increase, the—
Interior pressure is increased
The membrane used in either an air inflated or air supported structure may be a ——– material
Limited combustible or noncombustible
The membrane used in either an air inflated or air supported structure may be a limited combustible or noncombustible material. If the material is limited combustible is required to have———-
A low flame spread
and
low smoke propagation
Air supported air/air inflated
If there is a ———the membrane will collapse
Serious reduction or total loss of power
A membrane covered cable structure uses a system of——— to provide the support for the membrane covering
masts and cables
Membrane covered frame structures utilize a ———usually with——to support the membrane
Rigid frame system
columns
These types of membrane construction are more commonly used than air inflated or air supported structures
Membrane covered cable and frame systems
Membrane covered cable and frame systems cannot be used to provide ——–because of the——
Large unobstructed interior space
necessary support system
——Do not have a fire resistance rating
Membranes
Some membranes are considered ———-and the remainder are required by code to have a——-
Non combustible
Low frame* spread
(Air inflated/air supported membrane covered cable and frame systems)
The membrane may ——–under high temperatures
Self vent by melting
Consists of a building with numerous individual tenants that face a common covered pedestrian way
Covered mall building or “the mall”
Covered mall building
technically the———- is defined as the MALL
Covered pedestrian way
Shopping malls are often developed in
A suburban community on the edge of a larger city
The shopping mall can be described as comparable to———– under one roof
Business district of a medium-sized city
Shopping malls are constructed in various sizes and configurations and typically consist of——- levels
1-3
When they contain more than one level covered malls will have—–
Multiple openings between the levels
building codes required that the MALL be a minimum of ———in width
20 ft.
Malls are usually designed with——– large well-known perimeter stores that are known as——-
One or more
anchor stores
The ——-serve to heighten the overall commercial appeal of the mall
Anchor buildings
The anchor stores may be separated from the smaller stores by a ———however codes permit —————–between the anchor stores and the mall
Firewall
unprotected openings
While some shopping malls maybe built of fire resistive construction many are of ————construction
Noncombustible or wood joisted
In recent years major developers of covered malls have preferred——
Unprotected noncombustible protection
current codes do not permit covered malls to be constructed of
Wood joisted construction
Sections of covered malls may have been constructed at different times; ———-is definitely a possibility
Mixed construction
Current codes require malls to be ———–however it is possible to find older covered malls that are only partially sprinklered or even non-sprinklered
Fully sprinklered
Codes require individual stores within a shopping mall to have———- from each other
1-Hour fire resistive separations
Covered mall
the storefronts usually are separated from the mall only by show windows and either a———- or———
Security gate
swinging glass door
For many years most codes required a smoke control system in all covered mall buildings. Current codes have eliminated this requirement in———-however a smoke control system may be required in——–covered mall buildings.
One-story shopping malls
Two-and three-story
Because the smaller stores face into the mall access to an individual store by responding fire companies may be slowed because apparatus cannot drive directly to the front of the store. to compensate for this condition codes now require fire department hose outlets in:
Stairs
major entrances
Entrances from the mall to corridors and passageways
As a result of economic changes the neighborhoods there have been instances were covered malls that originally included primarily retail tenants have become converted to
Office malls
Procedures taken to shelter persons from harm during an emergency without evacuating them from a structure used especially in hospitals imprisons
Defend in place
Buildings housing———-differ significantly from most occupancy uses
Detention and correctional facilities
Smaller temporary holding facility before release or transfer of inmates to a larger correctional facility
Detention facility
For ———–located in remote areas evacuation into a secure area can be achieved by directing inmates to outdoor exercise areas
Larger correctional facilities
Detention in correctional facilities
where evacuation is a last resort it is necessary to apply the concept of—–similar to the approach used for——-
Defendant in place
hospitals
Model building code requirements for fire protection and life safety systems for detention and correctional facilities vary depending on
The level of restraint required at the facility
Newer correctional facilities will likely have a——— where locking devices are monitored and controlled
Central control center
Detention and correctional facilities
firecodes have strict flammability requirements for ———-including mattresses to reduce the fire hazard exposure to inmates
Furnishings
Until recent years there was a reluctance to install automatic sprinklers in detention and correctional facilities because of the possibility of inmates committing suicide by hanging themselves from sprinklers. about 25 years ago the automatic sprinkler industry responded to this concern by developing a——
This fire protection features specifically addresses the concept of——
Breakaway sprinkler
Defend in place
Atrium-area open in the center of the building extending through ———stories similar to a ——-but usually covered by a———- to allow natural light and ventilation to interior rooms
Two or more
courtyard
skylight
Detention and correctional facilities
another key element of the defendant in place concept is the creation of——– on each floor separated by a——–
One or more compartments
fire rated smoke barrier
Detention and correctional facilities
In most cases it will not be necessary to
Utilize stairs and evacuate inmates
Older detention and correctional facilities may not have——— and maybe dependent on——– to open locks
Automatic sprinklers installed
keys
An atrium is a large vertical opening extending through two or more floors of a building that is not used for—
Building services
In an architectural sense an atrium can have a roof or a ceiling or simply be open to the atmosphere. however the code definition of an atrium refers to a
Covered vertical opening
Atriums
in contemporary design practice their appeal lies mainly in the ———they provide within the building
Openness
For low height buildings an atrium often extends from the—–
First floor up to the roof
In taller buildings it is common for an atrium to extend—–
Only part way up through a building
From a fire safety standpoint an——-poses the same potential as other vertical openings for communication of heat and smoke up through a building
Atrium
There is often a desire to have some floors of the building open to the atrium without—–
Any physical separation
The—– ——-of an atrium is frequently occupied by combustible furnishings or other contents
Floor level
A fire in———- or ———has the potential to impact occupants of other open floors -even upper floors that are otherwise enclosed
Floors open to the atrium
on the atrium floor itself
Typical model code requirements for atriums include
Automatic sprinkler protection
Atrium
automatic sprinklers may only be required for those floors that are—-
Connected by the atrium
The building codes have a basic requirement that an atrium be enclosed with——– OR a combination of——
One hour fire rated construction
glass and automatic sprinklers
Atrium
codes usually make one provision for elimination of the 1 hour enclosure for up to——– when certain conditions are met
3 stories or more
Atrium
A——– is required to vent the products of combustion to the outside whether floors are enclosed or not
Smoke control system
(Atrium/ smoke control system)
Current codes base the exhaust capacity to maintain the smoke layer at a specified height above the
Highest walking level serving the exit system
(Atrium smoke control system
the required exhaust capacity is based on the ——and the—-
magnitude of the expected fire
the height to the bottom of the desired smoke later
Several different methods of venting atriums can be found depending on
When a particular building was built
Providing adequate fire protection in a building with an atrium is complicated by ———-which can extend up to——–
The height of many atriums
50 STORIES or more
When sprinklers are installed at an atrium ceiling ———–above the floor they will be less effective because of the longer time it takes for them to operate, if they operated all
50 or more FEET
Some codes now wave the requirements for sprinklers when the ceilings of atriums are ——–above the floor
MORE THAN 55 feet
Physical or chemical process that results in the rapid release of high-pressure gas into the environment
Explosion
An explosion inside a building creates an——-on the building and it’s structural components
Outward pressure
For most occupancies ———explosions are not taking into account in the design of a building
Internal
In specialized industrial occupancies such as were flammable liquids are processed or where combustible dusts are produced, structural design provisions can and should be made to—–
Reduce the structural damage due to an explosion
An event that produces a rapid release of energy
Explosion
(Explosion)
this sudden release of energy produces ——– often referred to as——-
Outward pressures
blast waves
What distinguishes an explosion from such other occurrences as ordinary combustion is the—
Speed with which the process occurs
Explosions in buildings- common examples
Explosions involving a chemical reaction
explosions resulting from uncontrolled chemical reactions
boiler explosions
———–Often occur in grain elevators and in milling operations involving Saw dust
Dust explosions
Dust explosions often occur in——– and in——–
Grain elevators
milling operations involving sawdust
Purely physical event in which no chemical reaction occurs
Boiler explosion
The damage an explosion may inflict on a structure depends on
maximum pressure developed
rate of pressure rise
duration of the peak pressure
resistance of the confining structure
Two general methods can be employed to reduce the structural damage from an explosion:
Containment
venting
The building enclosure is constructed with adequate reinforcement to contain the pressure resulting from an explosion without failure
Containment
The maximum pressure reached during an explosion may be as high as——- times the ———or more
10
Atmospheric pressure
Designed to quickly relieve the pressure produced by an explosion before it causes excessive damage
Explosion venting
Ideally an explosion that would be———. however there are very few industrial operations that can be carried out without some kind of ——
Open at all times
enclosure
Include
- louvered openings
- hanger type doors
- wall panels
- windows
- roof vents
Explosion vents
(Explosion vents)
vent CLOSURES must be designed to operate at ————however they must still be designed to remain in place when subjected to the force of——–
As low and internal pressure as practical
external winds
Because vent panels must operate quickly they must be—
Relatively light
If the explosion panels are too heavy their——- will slow the speed at which they operate resulting in a faster rate of——-
Inertia
internal pressure rise
Ideally explosion vent panels should not weigh more than
3 pounds per square foot
One method to help ensure rapid operation of vent panels is to attach the panels with————- which are designed to break under the force of an explosion
Reduced diameter bolts
Explosion vents must be of an ———to vent the pressure of an explosion
Adequate size
The vent area must be large enough to keep the pressure of an explosion below that which would——
Cause structural damage
The required explosion vent AREA is a function of the
SIZE and STRENGTH of the structure
Expected forces of the potential explosion
type of event
It is important to remember that the venting of an explosion is a means of
Limiting structural damage
Explosion
the ——-developed within the space may be great enough to cause death or injury even when it is vented because it may come into contact with personnel before—–
Pressure wave
the vent opens
- Space in the normal means of egress protected from fire by an approved sprinkler system
- w/in building-smoke proof walls or
- in a adjacent building
Area of refuge
Area where persons who are unable to use stairs contemporarily wait for instructions or assistance during an emergency building evacuation
Area of refuge
As a result of the ——-there’s been significant effort to provide buildings that are readily accessible and usable for individuals that with disabilities. a key element of this effort has been the recognition of the need for special provisions to——— if the need arises
ADA of 1990
Alert and evacuate disabled persons
Once an alarm is initiated there must be provisions to provide——— especially for occupants who are unable to——-
Some codes reduce or eliminate the requirements in buildings that are——–
Accessible means of egress
readily use the stairs
Fully protected by automatic sprinklers
———–Typically consist of areas of refuge on a floor in conjunction with stairs or elevators or a combination of both
Accessible means of egress
For those buildings with unusual site or configuration restraints, there may need meet for an———at the level of———-
Area of refuge
Stair or elevator discharge
An area of refuge for a stairway serving as an accessible means of egress can be located
With the stairway on a landing
or
from an adjacent vestibule
Generally the area of refuge is designed to accommodate——- depending on the occupant load served
1 or 2 wheelchairs
——–Must not obstruct other occupants using the stairway or vestibule for egress
Wheelchair space
——–Are often used for ————-to utilize an elevator as an accessible means of egress
Elevator lobbies
areas of refuge
Area of refuge
A——–is essential to protect occupants while they’re awaiting rescue
Smoke and heat free environment
Vestibules outside of stairways that provide areas of refuge need to be separated from the rest of the floor by a——–
They typically consist of a minimum——
Smoke barrier
1 hour fire rated enclosure
Areas of refuge must be provided with some type of ————connected to a constantly attended location
Two way communication system
Areas of refuge need to be well identified from the exterior of the space and provided on the interior with adequate instructions on the—-
Use of the space
and
the communication system
The use of ———greatly increases the efficiency of warehouse operations because it permits greater utilization of a buildings interior volume
Multiple tier racks
Storage racks can vary from ——–tears with a total height of just——- to in excess of——–
2 or 3
12 ft
100 ft
Normally ——–are structurally independent of the building in which they are located and are often bolted to the floor
Storage racks
Although direct storage is highly efficient it results in a very high
Density of storage
While racks may be in single rows the racks are usually arranged
Back-to-back
double row racks
———-May have multiple rows of racks wider than——— or isles narrower than——
Warehouses
12 ft
3.5 ft
These configurations create 2 problems
- first-the penetration of water from overhead sprinklers is obstructed by the———-
- Second ———–may be created that permit vertical communicational fire through the racks
Intervening tiers of storage
flue spaces
Rack storage
sprinklers are often installed
At the ceiling and within HIGH RACK configurations
Newer sprinkler technology has led to the development of ——–sprinklers
Control mode and suppression mode
Control mode and suppression mode sprinklers
these sprinklers are used to control or suppress fires in ——-usually—–
Rack storage
without in-rack sprinklers
Consider construction sites as high cautionary areas.——–is critical; getting stuck in one position is dangerous
apparatus placement
The complexity of a construction project varies with the —–
Complexity of the building being constructed
A one-story Mercantile building of several thousand square feet can be constructed in a matter of——- but a high-rise building can take as long as—— to complete
A few weeks
three years
A building can change in shape and size on a regular basis as it is
Remodeled
The——– of a large construction project complicates the task of responding firefighters
Changing configuration
————By———are necessary to keep firefighters familiar with a project
Frequent site visits
first due FIRE companies
One problem firefighters are likely to face is ———the construction site
Gaining access to
Construction sites involve——-that make access difficult and driving hazardous
Excavations
Gates in fences and barricades may be locked at night and on weekends to prevent unauthorized access and there may —-
Not be a watchman present to open the gates
Emergency vehicle access up to the actual building may be difficult. completion of ————-maybe one of the last phases of a project
Paved driveways and parking areas
Fire codes have requirements for providing ————-either temporary or permanent———-
Adequate access roads
before construction begins
Maybe one of the last phases
before construction begins x2
near the completion of a project
paved driveways and parking areas
- adequate access roads
- Codes allow FD to require mains and hydrants
normal elevators
Often a——- is located a considerable distance from a paved street or highway
Large construction project
Industrial complexes
sports complexes
covered mall buildings
Fire codes require that FIRE HYDRANTS be located ——–with a water supply capable of meeting the—-
Close to buildings
required fire flow for the premises
The codes allow the fire department to require the installation of
Mains and hydrants before construction begins
Large building projects are typically—– and often—–
Complex
built in stages
It is important that the FIRE DEPARTMENT meet with the OWNER/DEVELOPER and GENERAL CONTRACTOR———–to coordinate the installation of—–
Before construction starts
fire department access and water supply
Fires frequently occur in ————–construction projects
The upper floors of high-rise
The———— are usually not in service until near the completion of a project
Normal elevators used in a building
It may be necessary to use a———- to gain access to the upper floors in a high-rise project
Construction elevator
Temporary elevator usually erected on the outside of a building for use by construction workers
Construction elevators
Construction elevators are——- operated
Manually
During ———an operator is stationed on the car and the construction elevator can be used by firefighters to reach the upper floors
Normal work hours
It is common to find that the————is unfamiliar with the operation of the construction elevator and will be unable to assist firefighters in its operation
Construction site watchman
It is common to ———during non-construction hours
Disconnect the power to a construction elevator
Construction projects may make use of a ———–as well as a construction elevator
Material hoist
These systems are often extensive enough that they alone present a tactical challenge for firefighters
Scaffolding systems
Newer building codes require that a minimum of——— be provided when building construction reaches a height——-
Lighted stairway
above 4 stories or 50 feet
Building codes require that a minimum of one lighted stairway be provided when building construction reaches a height above four stories or 50 feet.
this can be——– if———- are not errected as the construction proceeds
Temporary stair
ONE OR MORE of the permanent stairways are not erected
If a fire occurs at the very top of a construction project it will be necessary to
Use stairs beyond the elevator to reach the fire
A building under construction will have openings in floors for shafts and stairwells.
contemporary safety standards require that these openings as well as ———have ——-to keep workers from falling
Outside edges of floors
barricades
(Barricades)
however a danger to firefighters still exist, particularly under the conditions of ——–on a construction project at———-
Limited lighting
night
The construction process tends to be inherently—
Chaotic
———-Is often installed on construction projects for lights and power equipment
Temporary electrical wiring
Even when it is carefully installed ———-is subject to mechanical damage from work being performed in the immediate vicinity
Temporary wiring
Temporary heat may be provided by several means including
Natural gas
kerosene
propane
The heating systems used at construction sites become a cause of fires not only because of the temporary nature of their installation but also because they are—
Frequently left unattended
Firewatch -usually refers to someone who had the responsibility to
- tour a building or facility at least ————
- look for actual or potential fire emergency situations and
- send an appropriate warning if such conditions are found
Hourly basis
When ——–is used as the fuel on the construction site the tanks are susceptible to——-
Propane
mechanical damage
(Propane)
———-cylinders are commonly used at construction sites and a number of extra cylinders are ALWAYS stored on-site
100 pound size
——-Can become exposed to the heat of a fire and a can occur
Propane tanks
When ————is used as fuel these fuels storage tanks are susceptible to sparks from welding and exposure to fires that may occur in the construction debris
Kerosene
——-Is a hazard COMMONLY ENCOUNTERED on construction sites
Welding
Fire prevention codes usually require that a firewatch be provided
During and after welding or cutting with TORCHES
The person to sign firewatch responsibilities should be
Provided with an extinguisher and have no other duties
In order to keep equipment supplied with you———– are likely to be stored on-site
Diesel and gasoline
——-At several truckloads of debris may be removed—-
Large Sites
each day
On a high-rise project, a—————is typically provided on the building exterior so that debris from the upper floors can be dumped into a container on the ground
Temporary chute
A common problem encountered at construction sites is that the ———–May not be complete
Structural fireproofing
Although a building maybe designed as a fire resistant building it does not necessarily have the———- of a fire resistive building while under construction
Structural integrity
In concrete buildings the —————of the concrete cannot be insured until the concrete has cured
Ultimate fire resistance
The wood formwork used in the placing of concrete poses a special danger because it
Contributes fuel to a fire
It is imperative that firefighters not be positioned UNDER
Burning concrete formwork
In some cases the———- may be one of the last BUILDING COMPONENTS to be placed in service
Sprinkler system
On ———construction projects some level of temporary fire protection must be provided
Large, long duration
On large long duration construction projects some level of——– must be provided
Temporary fire protection
The installation of ———–is especially critical on high-rise projects but it is also appropriate for expansive lowrise projects such as regional shopping centers
Interim fire protection
The installation of interim fire protection is especially critical on———– but it is also appropriate for ————such as regional shopping centers
High-rise projects
Expansive low rise projects
The most common temporary fire protection measure is the installation of
Stand pipes with outlets
The most common———- is the installation of standpipes with outlets
Temporary fire protection measure
The most efficient method of providing fire protection on a construction project is to make use of———as they are installed
The permanent fire protection systems
The most efficient method of providing fire protection on a construction project is to make use of the permanent fire protection systems———-
As they are installed
It is especially important on high-rise buildings and lowrise buildings more than three stories that—-
Standpipe risers be extended as construction progresses
It is especially important on———- and————- that the standpipe risers be extended up as the construction progresses
High-rise buildings
lowrise buildings more than three stories
Building and fire codes typically require that standpipes be extended before the construction reaches
40 ft. Above the lowest level of fire department access
Building a fire codes typically require that ————before the construction reaches 40 feet above the lowest level fire department access
Standpipes be extended
BC
The top hose outlets should be within
TACTICS
as an absolute minimum the standpipe riser and outlets should progress to within
One story of the uppermost level having a secure floor
Two floors of the highest level under construction
When standpipes are installed in building projects they cannot be——- during freezing weather
Maintained wet
When standpipes are installed in building projects they cannot be maintained wet during—–
If a dry standpipe is used during——- the riser must be drained after used to prevent freezing
Freezing weather
cold-weather
Fire extinguisher can be very useful at construction sites when—–
Workers are trained to use them
Construction sites
when theft of extinguishers is a problem——— can sometimes be substituted
Barrels of water with buckets
It is normal for a building to be periodically—–
Remodeled or renovated
——–Can be either for purposes of modernization or to accommodate the desires or needs of new occupants
Renovations
The extent of —-can vary from relatively simple to major construction projects
Remodeling
Can ——consist of replacing bathroom fixtures or it can consist of extensive structural or architectural alterations
Renovation
The ——–of buildings can introduce unusual hazards
Remodeling and renovation
In some respects the——–of a building can be more hazardous than new construction operations
Remodeling
——Often takes takes place in one portion of a building while the remainder of the building continues to be occupied
Remodeling
————Often includes the erection of ———–that can obstruct obstruct exits or increase the exit travel distance from the occupied portion of the building
Renovation of an occupied building
construction barricades
——–Maybe used to remove the adhesive used for floor coverings
Propane torches
Hazards of Remodeling and renovation
when occupancy continues on other floors it is especially important to have a——— the construction area——–
Fire guard patrol
after work stops for the day
The dangers of remodeling can be aggravated by the need to————- in the area being remodeled
Shut down automatic sprinklers
If sprinklers must be shut off in the construction area ————must be provided
First aide hose STATIONS and extinguishers
A renovation project should be planned in a way that the——-
Interruption to sprinkler protection is minimized
It’s a portion of a sprinkler system has been shut off for remodeling is imperative that——
The restoration of the system be verified when the project is finished
Leaving a portion of a sprinkler system shut off occurs frequently in a project———
Of long duration
———-Are sometimes located in obscure corners of old warehouse and factory buildings and can be forgotten at the end of a project
Sectional control valves
In newer buildings with sprinkler systems, building and fire codes require VALVES controlling the water supply for sprinkler systems with———sprinklers to be——–
MORE THAN 20
Monitored at a constantly attended location
These projects are typically located in suburban areas or on a campus type complex where adjacent open space is available
Major expansion
Major expansion
these projects are typically located in—— or on a ———–where adjacent open space is available
Suburban areas
campus type complex
——–Often are major construction projects
Expansion’s of existing buildings
Expansion of buildings
These projects present both the concerns faced in ———along with some of the concerns faced in——–
New construction
Major remodeling projects
A common theme in most of these projects is the need to keep the existing portion of the building in operation
Expansion of buildings
It is critical to maintain an adequate level of life safety to occupants in the existing portion while providing the necessary protection to the construction site
Expansion of buildings
Expansion of buildings
often the new construction will impact ———-for the existing building
One or more of the exits
Expansion of buildings
Temporary measures must be taken to provide for———- in the existing building
The continued protection of the occupants
Expansion of buildings
Arrangements for these provisions need to be developed prior to the start of construction
Protection of occupants/exits
Expansion of buildings
another concern is the need to maintain ————-provided in the existing building. most of these expansions will involve buildings that are———
All life safety systems
fully protected by automatic sprinklers
Expansion of buildings
as with the EXITing system, temporary provisions will likely be needed to keep existing ———operational
Fire protection systems
Expansion of buildings
———-should be made aware of any temporary arrangements and visit the site to become familiar with the project
First due fire companies
Expansion of buildings
measures that may be required to maintain the water supply include temporary———
It may be necessary to provide—— until the new construction is COMPLETE
mains
hydrants
Temporary risers
temporary bulk sprinkler piping
———–Is a process that is even more chaotic than its construction and FIRES on——— are very common
The demolition of a building
demolition sites
Demolition of buildings
MAJOR FIRES can occur that involve buildings of——-
Wood joisted
Or
wood frame construction
A fire involving a building being demolished can expose——— and create an———–therefore the community must be protected
Neighboring structures
environmental threat
Demolition of buildings
this procedure is a very common cause of fire
Removal of scrap steel often includes cutting with torches
Demolition of buildings
removal of —–often includes———. this procedure is a very common cause of fires
Scrap steel
cutting with torches
As a building is demolished it’s structural integrity is—-
GRADUALLY lost
While major fires in building being demolished usually involve combustible structures or structures with combustible framing, —————buildings can have some unpleasant surprises
Fire resistive or noncombustible
To a firefighter a————- can present a virtual maze of consisting of floor openings, an unstable structural system, inoperative fire protection systems, and unknown hazardous materials
Building being demolished
Exterior firefighting tactics from a safe distance are the best course of action
Demolition of buildings
Demolition of buildings
———–frequently become victims of their own activities and need to be rescued from a building
Scavengers pilfering materials
Every Swiftwater training class emphasizes the dangers of
Wearing turnout gear near the waters edge
—Must be a training priority
Awareness of the hazards
Responding firefighters from recruits to senior officers must be alert to the potential for——- during a fire
Building collapse
The causes of —–building collapse can be put into two broad categories:
NONFIRE
nature caused
human caused
Can be anticipated
Tornadoes and hurricanes
No forewarning
Earthquakes and explosions
When confronted with a partially collapsed building firefighters must assume that
The remaining building it could be seriously weakened
When confronted with a PARTIALLY collapsed building firefighters must assume that the remaining building could be seriously weakened. use caution when performing————-when facing this condition
Search and rescue operations
Nature caused collapse
———may be impaired for days or even weeks
Utilities and roads
Nature caused collapse (concerns)
fires occurring days/weeks later when utilities are restored especially——-
ELECTRICAL services
Nature caused collapse
for safety reasons there is a need to ensure that——- is off and that ———are shut down
Electrical power
gas mains
An earthquake results from the——- by a ————in the earths crust that produces——–
Energy released
sudden shift
seismic waves
Zones of heart earthquake probability include
Earthquakes
In the United States and Canada————-are particularly leave vulnerable
- Pacific coast of the United States and Canada
- Hawaii
- Central Utah
- Southern Illinois
The West Coast including Alaska and Hawaii
Ground motion associated with major earthquakes can cause extensive structural damage to buildings that are near——— often resulting in——-
Earthquake fault lines
partial or total building collapse
——–Associated with————- can cause extensive structural damage to buildings that are near earthquake fault lines often resulting in partial or total collapse
Ground motion
major earthquakes
———–Is highly susceptible to seismic events
Unreinforced masonry construction
Unreinforced Masonary construction is highly susceptible to———
Seismic events
Earthquakes
buildings constructed prior to——-are generally more at risk than newer buildings
1930s
Earthquakes
buildings constructed prior to the 1930s are generally more at risk than newer buildings. this is because of the gradual introduction of ————–requirements in model building codes during the——–
Mandatory seismic design
1930s to the 1950s
Numerous factors contribute to the extent of building damage and potential collapse during earthquakes. one important factor is the LOCATION of the building relative to———-
The responsible fault
or
the epicenter of the earthquake
Numerous factors contribute to the extent of building damage and potential collapse during earthquakes. the SOIL CONDITIONS beneath the building, especially ———————are another critical factor
The potential for liquefication of loose sandy soil
Model building codes now have stringent requirements for seismic design. these REQUIREMENTS vary depending on the —————-in the area where the building is to be located
Expected to ground motion
Seismic design considerations
the requirements for a ————-are usually higher so that the building will be able to continue to function
Critical building
Currently there is no proven method to predict an
Earthquake
——–Should coordinate with the—— to identify in advance buildings that may be more likely to suffer major damage and possible collapse during a major seismic event
The fire department
the local building department
Firefighters should always be aware that MAJOR earthquakes will likely be followed by ———-some of which may be——— as the original event
Aftershocks
nearly as strong
Even if a building has not collapsed a ———maybe strong enough to topple a weakened cornice or other damaged building element
MINOR aftershock
Even if a building has not collapsed a minor aftershock may be strong enough to topple a ————or other damaged building element
Weakened Cornice
EARTHQUAKE
building collapse, either total or partial will likely involve—–
Multiple buildings over a widespread area
The potential for landslides occurs———. Landslides are defined as the movement of———-
Nearly everywhere
rock earth or debris down a slope
Landslides
———-has increased the potential for this geological event because there are more ————–to accommodate building development
Urban expansion
Cuts into hillsides
Although LANDSLIDES are more likely to occur———– or in conjunction with such events as———– they may occur at any time
DURING heavy rains
earthquakes
Red tagging
Indicating unsafe to enter
In some instances there may be forewarning of an EVENTUAL MAJOR LANDSLIDE. examples of early warning signs include
Damage to underground utilities
cracking in roads
minor slides in the area
On ————–the addition of groundwater through landscape watering or a broken water main can’t be the trigger to a major landslide
Hillsides that are prone to landslides
On hillsides that are prone to landslides, the addition of groundwater through——– or a ———-can be the trigger to a major landslide
Landscape watering
Broken water main
Sinking or settling of land due to various natural and human caused factors such as removal of underground water or oil
Subsidence
A NATURAL DEPRESSION in a land surface formed by the collapse of a CAVERN ROOF. generally occurs in LIMESTONE REGIONS
Sinkhole
There are NO specific building code requirements to address—–
Landslides
Environmental impact reports should IDENTIFY this issue and zoning regulations typically ADRESS IT.
There are no specific model building code requirements to address landslides
Landslides
Developers are often required to provide adequate drainage and other measures to ensure——– however———-may not identify all existing conditions.
Ground stability
soil reports
Landslides
The fire service need to develop a close working relationship with Public Works agencies to ensure notification when problems are ———or with a high-risk areas have been identified by——-
Noted in the field
historical evidence
As with earthquakes, landslides may cause failure of ——along with—-
Gas and water lines
electrical outages
Landslides
firefighters must also be aware of the potential for——– after arriving at the scene
Continued landslide activity
Firefighters must also be aware of the potential for continued LANDSLIDE activity after arriving at the scene. caution must be exercised in——– to avoid unsafe areas
Parking apparatus
Land subsidence is similar to landslides in that the——— but usually in the form of——-
Ground gives way
gradual sinking
If this occurs under or near buildings damage or EVENTUAL collapse of the building may occur
Land subsidence
Land subsidence
the primary cause of this phenomenon in the US is the—–
UNITED STATES***
Removal of large amounts of underground WATER
Land subsidence
the primary cause of this phenomenon in the US is the removal of large amounts of underground water. this has occurred in—-
Almost every state
Land subsidence
sometimes the cause is the———- over many years beneath——–areas
Pumping of oil
built-up
Subsidence is usually———and more or less——- when the cause is the removal of an——
Gradual
uniform
underground liquid
——–Is usually gradual and more or less uniform when the cause is the removal of an underground liquid
Subsidence
Another form of GROUND COLLAPSE is the sinkhole. like——-sinkholes are usually—–
Landslides
sudden events
Sinkhole
This type of failure represents an—–
Extreme form of subsidence
This type of failure represents an extreme form of subsidence
Sinkhole
There are instances in the San Joaquin Valley of California where the ground over time has—
SUBSIDED 30 ft. or more
While ——-more often occur in the Midwest and Eastern/Southeastern states, especially—– they can occur in all states and throughout most of Canada
Sinkholes
Florida
Sinkholes are caused by the collapse of the——– into a below ground——-
Ground surface
Cavity
Sinkholes are caused by the collapse of the ground surface into a below ground cavity. these cavities are usually created by the interaction of——–that are——
Groundwater with rock formations
water soluble
Can occur over areas that have been subjected to underground mining or more commonly in urban areas as a result of water main breaks
Sinkhole
Singles can occur over areas that have been subjected to ——-or more commonly in ——-as a result of——
Underground mining
urban areas
water main breaks
Remember**
Water main
Landslides
Sinkhole
Determining the potential for——– is often done by examining historical records
Subsidence and sinkholes
Determining the potential for subsidence and sinkholes is often done by examining——– . the same precautions that apply to——– apply to these events
Historical records
Landslides
Highwinds especially those associated with tornadoes and hurricanes often result in—–
Catastrophic REGIONAL events
———Especially those associated with———- often result in catastrophic regional events
Highwinds
tornadoes and hurricanes
High winds especially those associated with tornadoes and hurricanes often result in catastrophic regional events. damage to BUILDINGS is usually——- in the case of ———-many structures may be completely destroyed.
Extensive
tornadoes
Damage to buildings is usually extensive, in the case of tornadoes many structures may be completely destroyed. with HURRICANES there is the added factor of ——–along——— that causes additional building damage and destruction.
Water surge
immediate adjacent coastal areas
Unlike ———-which usually occur WITHOUT WARNING, modern weather forecasting usually enables EARLY warnings about the potential for—-_
Earthquakes and sinkholes
High winds
Tornados
Hurricanes
Unlike earthquakes and sinkholes, which usually occur without warning modern weather forecasting usually enables early warning about the potential for Highwinds tornadoes and hurricanes. however the ———-are often unpredictable
Paths of these storms
One resource available to fire departments to assist them in ———is by contacting the NOAAs National Weather Service’s website www.nws.noaa.gov
Monitoring weather conditions
——-can occur throughout all 50 states and Canada
Wind storms
—–generally occur only along the Gulf states, eastern seaboard, and Hawaii
Hurricanes
Model building codes include WIND LOADS as part of the—–
Structural design requirements
In windborne debris regions, such as coastal areas subject to hurricanes where the basic windspeed is————, window glazing is required to be———-
110 mph OR GREATER
IMPACT RESISTANT
In ———-, such as coastal areas subject to hurricanes where the basic windspeed is 110 mph or greater——— is required to be impact resistant
Windborne debris regions
window glazing
In windborne debris region such as coastal areas subject to hurricanes with the basic windspeed is 110 mph or greater window glazing is required to be impact resistant. Residents may also employ ———also known as ———-to provide ADDITIONAL REINFORCEMENT as storms APPROACH.
Special brackets
wind clips
SOUTHERN Florida locally adopted more stringent requirements after——-
Hurricane Andrew in 1992
A——– featuring——mph winds partially collapsed the roof of a Dallas Cowboys training facility in May 2009
Downburst
70
—-can be expected as a result of major windstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes
Heavy structural damage
Heavy structural damage can be expected as a result of major windstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes. general concerns facing firefighters include—-
Collapse of multiple buildings
fires
loss of water supplies
loss of electrical power
(Major windstorms tornadoes and hurricanes)
these types of catastrophic events require a highly coordinated———- for coordinated response
Multi agency REGIONAL PLAN
BUILDING COLLAPSE can occur due to the force associated with accumulated snow, water, or a combination of both. this type of collapse is usually associated with ———– but may occur after a———
Major weather events
series of storms
Building collapse can occur due to the force associated with accumulated SNOW, WATER, or a combination of both. this type of collapse is usually associated with major weather event but may occur after a series of storms. these types of collapses often happen——- and are usually——-
Without warning
isolated events
As with the potential for earthquakes and windstorms, model building codes require that————be addressed as part of the structural design of the building
Snow and rain loads
The building codes specify the SNOW loads expected throughout the US and Canada. these values range from—— in certain PORTIONS of the Sunbelt states to ——–in Whittier, AK
0
300 psf
Water flowing where it is not NORMALLY EXPECTED
Floods
This threat exists in all areas and takes on many forms
Floods
Coastal areas along the west coast of the US and Canada, Alaska, and Hawaii are subjected to the possibilities of——caused by EARTHQUAKES
Tsunamis
Floods
water can——— causing the building to partially or totally collapse
Undermine foundations
In the case of ———the house can be swept off its foundation and deposited in whole or part HUNDREDS of feet from where it originally rested
Storm surges in coastal areas
US model building codes base their requirements for ———-on Maps of ———-prepared by FEMA
Flood loads
flood hazard areas
US model building codes base their requirements for flood loads on Maps of flood hazard areas prepared by FEMA. the requirements vary depending on whether or not the building is ALSO subjected to——–
High velocity wave action
(US model building codes)
the requirements vary on whether or not the building is also subject to high velocity wave action. High velocity wave action would apply to——-
Coastal areas prone to hurricanes
(Coastal areas prone to hurricanes)
foundations and structures are required to resist—-
Flotation
Collapse
Lateral movement
Human caused building collapse
- In adequate structural design
- change in building use
- poor or careless construction methods
- poor or careless demolition methods
- explosions
The structural design, including calculations is typically reviewed during the———- before construction begins
Plans review process
The structural design of a building includes considerations of the maximum live loads associated with the ——-of a building
Expected occupancy
The structural design of a building includes considerations of the————– associated with the expected occupancy of the building
Maximum LIVE loads
Until a buildings STRUCTURAL FRAME is completed, the building will not have the level of——— that it will when the frame is completed
Structural integrity
There is always a potential for collapse due to——— construction techniques
Poor or hurried
Causes of STRUCTURAL COLLAPSE during the course of construction:
Temporary loads
sequencing
weakness of building frame
Instability of building frame
Causes of structural collapse during construction)
collapse can result when temporary loads on the structural members exceed FINAL DESIGN LOADS due to——— of heavy building materials on———
Careless stockpiling
Upper floors
(Causes of structural collapse during construction)
another cause of collapse is improper——-of the construction process
Sequencing
(Causes of structural collapse during construction)
A third cause of failure during construction results from temporary ——–of the building frame. this danger is especially applied to———-structures
Weakness
poured in place concrete
Causes of structural collapse during construction)
the———- of the building frame during construction. Until the——— of the structural frame are in place the frame is vulnerable to————–loads
Instability
Final members
vertical (gravity)
and
horizontal
The use of——-is common to ALL TYPES of building construction
Temporary bracing
The use of temporary bracing is common to ———of building construction.
ALL TYPES
(Causes of structural collapse)
Instability of building:
The structural engineer or contractor is responsible for identifying and providing———-
If the—– is not adequate, failure can occur.
Temporary bracing
Bracing
The common means of performing demolition include both
Piecemeal
controlled collapse
Piecemeal demolition is performed by using
Handtools or machines
Controlled collapse is performed by using a
- crane with a demolition ball
- hydraulic pusher arms
- wire rope pulling
- explosives
——Is performed by using a crane with a demolition ball, hydraulic pusher arms, wire rope pulling, or explosives
Controlled collapse
———is performed by using hand tools or machines
Piecemeal demolition
Both piecemeal and controlled collapse require a
Well thought out plan
Both piecemeal and control collapse require a well-thought-out plan. Such planning is especially critical when the building being demolished is——
Close to other structures
A PRIMARY GOAL of the demolition process must be to—
Protect nearby structures
When——— are being removed in a piecemeal demolition there is always the potential for——-
Primary structural members
unexpected collapse
Often piecemeal demolition will require ——–to ensure that the remaining structure will be able to support the load imposed by workers, equipment, and remove debris (building materials) temporarily stored in the building
Temporary bracing or props
With piecemeal demolition an UNEXPECTED collapse will likely involve ——because it is likely to occur when the building is—-
Occupied by workers involved in the actual demolition
Under either piecemeal or control collapse, things can go wrong, and if they do there is always the potential for——
IMPACT ON NEARBY BUILDINGS
A rising concern with———- buildings whether scheduled for demolition or not, are the problems of—–
Vacant
vandalism and scavenging
———May result in weakening of the structure or even an UNWANTED building collapse
AMATEUR scavenging
Amateur scavenging may result in— or even—-
Weakening of the structure
an UNWANTED building collapse
Scavenging activities DURING building demolition may also lead to an—
UNEXPECTED collapse
——Whether accidental or deliberate frequently result in building collapse
Explosions
Explosions whether accidental or deliberate frequently result in——– often——– are the result of ———within a building
Building collapse
accidental explosions
natural gas leak
Often accidental explosions are the result of—–
Natural gas leaks within a building
———-Are a rising threat due to the increase of terrorist activities throughout the world
Deliberate explosions
Explosions———- followed by FIRE
May or may not be
Collision of a motor vehicle with a structure typically results in—–
Partial collapse
Collision of a motor vehicle with a structure typically results in a partial collapse. less common, although more dramatic is an aircraft crash into a structure. when this occurs it is almost always——
Followed by a fire due to the fuel carried in the airplane fuel tanks
Some older buildings have collapsed due to—-
Age and deterioration
—Must be a training priority
Awareness of the hazards
Responding firefighters from recruits to senior officers must be alert to the potential for——- during a fire
Building collapse
The causes of —–building collapse can be put into two broad categories:
NONFIRE
nature caused
human caused
Can be anticipated
Tornadoes and hurricanes
No forewarning
Earthquakes and explosions
When confronted with a partially collapsed building firefighters must assume that
The remaining building it could be seriously weakened
When confronted with a PARTIALLY collapsed building firefighters must assume that the remaining building could be seriously weakened. use caution when performing————-when facing this condition
Search and rescue operations
Nature caused collapse
———may be impaired for days or even weeks
Utilities and roads
Nature caused collapse (concerns)
fires occurring days/weeks later when utilities are restored especially——-
ELECTRICAL services
Nature caused collapse
for safety reasons there is a need to ensure that——- is off and that ———are shut down
Electrical power
gas mains
An earthquake results from the——- by a ————in the earths crust that produces——–
Energy released
sudden shift
seismic waves
Zones of heart earthquake probability include
Earthquakes
In the United States and Canada————-are particularly leave vulnerable
- Pacific coast of the United States and Canada
- Hawaii
- Central Utah
- Southern Illinois
The West Coast including Alaska and Hawaii
Ground motion associated with major earthquakes can cause extensive structural damage to buildings that are near——— often resulting in——-
Earthquake fault lines
partial or total building collapse
——–Associated with————- can cause extensive structural damage to buildings that are near earthquake fault lines often resulting in partial or total collapse
Ground motion
major earthquakes
———–Is highly susceptible to seismic events
Unreinforced masonry construction
Unreinforced Masonary construction is highly susceptible to———
Seismic events
Earthquakes
buildings constructed prior to——-are generally more at risk than newer buildings
1930s
Earthquakes
buildings constructed prior to the 1930s are generally more at risk than newer buildings. this is because of the gradual introduction of ————–requirements in model building codes during the——–
Mandatory seismic design
1930s to the 1950s
Numerous factors contribute to the extent of building damage and potential collapse during earthquakes. one important factor is the LOCATION of the building relative to———-
The responsible fault
or
the epicenter of the earthquake
Numerous factors contribute to the extent of building damage and potential collapse during earthquakes. the SOIL CONDITIONS beneath the building, especially ———————are another critical factor
The potential for liquefication of loose sandy soil
Model building codes now have stringent requirements for seismic design. these REQUIREMENTS vary depending on the —————-in the area where the building is to be located
Expected to ground motion
Seismic design considerations
the requirements for a ————-are usually higher so that the building will be able to continue to function
Critical building
Currently there is no proven method to predict an
Earthquake
——–Should coordinate with the—— to identify in advance buildings that may be more likely to suffer major damage and possible collapse during a major seismic event
The fire department
the local building department
Firefighters should always be aware that MAJOR earthquakes will likely be followed by ———-some of which may be——— as the original event
Aftershocks
nearly as strong
Even if a building has not collapsed a ———maybe strong enough to topple a weakened cornice or other damaged building element
MINOR aftershock
Even if a building has not collapsed a minor aftershock may be strong enough to topple a ————or other damaged building element
Weakened Cornice
EARTHQUAKE
building collapse, either total or partial will likely involve—–
Multiple buildings over a widespread area
The potential for landslides occurs———. Landslides are defined as the movement of———-
Nearly everywhere
rock earth or debris down a slope
Landslides
———-has increased the potential for this geological event because there are more ————–to accommodate building development
Urban expansion
Cuts into hillsides
Although LANDSLIDES are more likely to occur———– or in conjunction with such events as———– they may occur at any time
DURING heavy rains
earthquakes
Red tagging
Indicating unsafe to enter
In some instances there may be forewarning of an EVENTUAL MAJOR LANDSLIDE. examples of early warning signs include
Damage to underground utilities
cracking in roads
minor slides in the area
On ————–the addition of groundwater through landscape watering or a broken water main can’t be the trigger to a major landslide
Hillsides that are prone to landslides
On hillsides that are prone to landslides, the addition of groundwater through——– or a ———-can be the trigger to a major landslide
Landscape watering
Broken water main
Sinking or settling of land due to various natural and human caused factors such as removal of underground water or oil
Subsidence
A NATURAL DEPRESSION in a land surface formed by the collapse of a CAVERN ROOF. generally occurs in LIMESTONE REGIONS
Sinkhole
There are NO specific building code requirements to address—–
Landslides
Environmental impact reports should IDENTIFY this issue and zoning regulations typically ADRESS IT.
There are no specific model building code requirements to address landslides
Landslides
Developers are often required to provide adequate drainage and other measures to ensure——– however———-may not identify all existing conditions.
Ground stability
soil reports
Landslides
The fire service need to develop a close working relationship with Public Works agencies to ensure notification when problems are ———or with a high-risk areas have been identified by——-
Noted in the field
historical evidence
As with earthquakes, landslides may cause failure of ——along with—-
Gas and water lines
electrical outages
Landslides
firefighters must also be aware of the potential for——– after arriving at the scene
Continued landslide activity
Firefighters must also be aware of the potential for continued LANDSLIDE activity after arriving at the scene. caution must be exercised in——– to avoid unsafe areas
Parking apparatus
Land subsidence is similar to landslides in that the——— but usually in the form of——-
Ground gives way
gradual sinking
If this occurs under or near buildings damage or EVENTUAL collapse of the building may occur
Land subsidence
Land subsidence
the primary cause of this phenomenon in the US is the—–
UNITED STATES***
Removal of large amounts of underground WATER
Land subsidence
the primary cause of this phenomenon in the US is the removal of large amounts of underground water. this has occurred in—-
Almost every state
Land subsidence
sometimes the cause is the———- over many years beneath——–areas
Pumping of oil
built-up
Subsidence is usually———and more or less——- when the cause is the removal of an——
Gradual
uniform
underground liquid
——–Is usually gradual and more or less uniform when the cause is the removal of an underground liquid
Subsidence
Another form of GROUND COLLAPSE is the sinkhole. like——-sinkholes are usually—–
Landslides
sudden events
Sinkhole
This type of failure represents an—–
Extreme form of subsidence
This type of failure represents an extreme form of subsidence
Sinkhole
There are instances in the San Joaquin Valley of California where the ground over time has—
SUBSIDED 30 ft. or more
While ——-more often occur in the Midwest and Eastern/Southeastern states, especially—– they can occur in all states and throughout most of Canada
Sinkholes
Florida
Sinkholes are caused by the collapse of the——– into a below ground——-
Ground surface
Cavity
Sinkholes are caused by the collapse of the ground surface into a below ground cavity. these cavities are usually created by the interaction of——–that are——
Groundwater with rock formations
water soluble
Can occur over areas that have been subjected to underground mining or more commonly in urban areas as a result of water main breaks
Sinkhole
Singles can occur over areas that have been subjected to ——-or more commonly in ——-as a result of——
Underground mining
urban areas
water main breaks
Remember**
Water main
Landslides
Sinkhole
Determining the potential for——– is often done by examining historical records
Subsidence and sinkholes
Determining the potential for subsidence and sinkholes is often done by examining——– . the same precautions that apply to——– apply to these events
Historical records
Landslides
Highwinds especially those associated with tornadoes and hurricanes often result in—–
Catastrophic REGIONAL events
———Especially those associated with———- often result in catastrophic regional events
Highwinds
tornadoes and hurricanes
High winds especially those associated with tornadoes and hurricanes often result in catastrophic regional events. damage to BUILDINGS is usually——- in the case of ———-many structures may be completely destroyed.
Extensive
tornadoes
Damage to buildings is usually extensive, in the case of tornadoes many structures may be completely destroyed. with HURRICANES there is the added factor of ——–along——— that causes additional building damage and destruction.
Water surge
immediate adjacent coastal areas
Unlike ———-which usually occur WITHOUT WARNING, modern weather forecasting usually enables EARLY warnings about the potential for—-_
Earthquakes and sinkholes
High winds
Tornados
Hurricanes
Unlike earthquakes and sinkholes, which usually occur without warning modern weather forecasting usually enables early warning about the potential for Highwinds tornadoes and hurricanes. however the ———-are often unpredictable
Paths of these storms
One resource available to fire departments to assist them in ———is by contacting the NOAAs National Weather Service’s website www.nws.noaa.gov
Monitoring weather conditions
——-can occur throughout all 50 states and Canada
Wind storms
—–generally occur only along the Gulf states, eastern seaboard, and Hawaii
Hurricanes
Model building codes include WIND LOADS as part of the—–
Structural design requirements
In windborne debris regions, such as coastal areas subject to hurricanes where the basic windspeed is————, window glazing is required to be———-
110 mph OR GREATER
IMPACT RESISTANT
In ———-, such as coastal areas subject to hurricanes where the basic windspeed is 110 mph or greater——— is required to be impact resistant
Windborne debris regions
window glazing
In windborne debris region such as coastal areas subject to hurricanes with the basic windspeed is 110 mph or greater window glazing is required to be impact resistant. Residents may also employ ———also known as ———-to provide ADDITIONAL REINFORCEMENT as storms APPROACH.
Special brackets
wind clips
SOUTHERN Florida locally adopted more stringent requirements after——-
Hurricane Andrew in 1992
A——– featuring——mph winds partially collapsed the roof of a Dallas Cowboys training facility in May 2009
Downburst
70
—-can be expected as a result of major windstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes
Heavy structural damage
Heavy structural damage can be expected as a result of major windstorms, tornadoes, and hurricanes. general concerns facing firefighters include—-
Collapse of multiple buildings
fires
loss of water supplies
loss of electrical power
(Major windstorms tornadoes and hurricanes)
these types of catastrophic events require a highly coordinated———- for coordinated response
Multi agency REGIONAL PLAN
BUILDING COLLAPSE can occur due to the force associated with accumulated snow, water, or a combination of both. this type of collapse is usually associated with ———– but may occur after a———
Major weather events
series of storms
Building collapse can occur due to the force associated with accumulated SNOW, WATER, or a combination of both. this type of collapse is usually associated with major weather event but may occur after a series of storms. these types of collapses often happen——- and are usually——-
Without warning
isolated events
As with the potential for earthquakes and windstorms, model building codes require that————be addressed as part of the structural design of the building
Snow and rain loads
The building codes specify the SNOW loads expected throughout the US and Canada. these values range from—— in certain PORTIONS of the Sunbelt states to ——–in Whittier, AK
0
300 psf
Water flowing where it is not NORMALLY EXPECTED
Floods
This threat exists in all areas and takes on many forms
Floods
Coastal areas along the west coast of the US and Canada, Alaska, and Hawaii are subjected to the possibilities of——caused by EARTHQUAKES
Tsunamis
Floods
water can——— causing the building to partially or totally collapse
Undermine foundations
In the case of ———the house can be swept off its foundation and deposited in whole or part HUNDREDS of feet from where it originally rested
Storm surges in coastal areas
US model building codes base their requirements for ———-on Maps of ———-prepared by FEMA
Flood loads
flood hazard areas
US model building codes base their requirements for flood loads on Maps of flood hazard areas prepared by FEMA. the requirements vary depending on whether or not the building is ALSO subjected to——–
High velocity wave action
(US model building codes)
the requirements vary on whether or not the building is also subject to high velocity wave action. High velocity wave action would apply to——-
Coastal areas prone to hurricanes
(Coastal areas prone to hurricanes)
foundations and structures are required to resist—-
Flotation
Collapse
Lateral movement
Human caused building collapse
- In adequate structural design
- change in building use
- poor or careless construction methods
- poor or careless demolition methods
- explosions
The structural design, including calculations is typically reviewed during the———- before construction begins
Plans review process
The structural design of a building includes considerations of the maximum live loads associated with the ——-of a building
Expected occupancy
The structural design of a building includes considerations of the————– associated with the expected occupancy of the building
Maximum LIVE loads
Until a buildings STRUCTURAL FRAME is completed, the building will not have the level of——— that it will when the frame is completed
Structural integrity
There is always a potential for collapse due to——— construction techniques
Poor or hurried
Causes of STRUCTURAL COLLAPSE during the course of construction:
Temporary loads
sequencing
weakness of building frame
Instability of building frame
Causes of structural collapse during construction)
collapse can result when temporary loads on the structural members exceed FINAL DESIGN LOADS due to——— of heavy building materials on———
Careless stockpiling
Upper floors
