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B4-B6 > B6.3 (3) > Flashcards

B6.3 (3) Flashcards

- monoclonal antibody uses - vaccines + medicines in the treatment of disease - aspetic techniques - new medicines discovery + development

1
Q

what is the role of monoclonal antibodies in pregnancy testing?

A
  • pregnant women produce hCG hormones after conception (in urine)
  • role is to bind to antigens on the hCG hormone + cause a colour-change reaction
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2
Q

what is the role of monoclonal antibodies in detecting diseases (such as prostate cancer)?

A
  • they can be developed to bind to specific cancerous antigens (such as ones for prostate cancer)
  • and so can bind to them and act as a marker (can confirm presence)
  • may have a fluorescent dye
  • once tumour identified = treated + removed (even at early stage)
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3
Q

what is the role of monoclonal antibodies in the treatment of diseases (like targetting cancer cells)?

A
  • they can be developed to target specific cells
    (only kill them/prevent from operating)
  • can carry radioactive substances/drugs to cancer cells
  • MAGIC BULLET 💉🔫
    (only kills cancer cells whereas with regular treatment, all cells are killed)
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4
Q

what is the benefit of using monoclonal antibodies to treat cancers?

A

minimise damage to surrounding tissue and other cells (only cancer cells)

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5
Q

advantages of monoclonal antibodies? (3)

A
  • bind to specific cells only (healthy cells not affected)
  • engineered to treat many diff conditions
  • can easily produce a lot of them
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6
Q

disadvantages of monoclonal antibodies? (3)

A
  • difficult to attach them to drugs
  • expensive to develop
  • were produced from mice lymphocytes = often triggered immune response in humans
  • nice are killed —> unethical
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7
Q

define a vaccine

A
  • a solution which
  • contains a small amount of weakened or dead versions of a pathogen which
  • stimulates white blood cells to
  • produce antibodies complimentary to the antigens
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8
Q

what does a vaccine force the immune system to do?

A

produce antibodies specific to that pathogen (by the lymphocytes)

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9
Q

what is immunity?

A

when lymphocyte cells produce enough antibodies fast enough to destroy pathogen before it causes disease

BUT PATHOGEN STILL ENTERS BODY

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10
Q

how do vaccines help in the long term?

A

upon the real infection, the body has some antibodies in the form of memory cells

(fight off disease faster and without becoming ill)

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11
Q

positives and negatives of vaccinations?

A

POS

  • eradicated many disease
  • epidemics prevented through herd immunity
  • childhood immunisations led to fewer children dying of infectious diseases

NEG

  • not always effective with providing immunity
  • can have severe allergic reactions
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12
Q

what are antibiotics?

A

medicines that kill bacterial pathogens inside the body

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13
Q

would one antibiotic kill all bacteria?

A

no, different antibiotics are effective against different types of bacteria

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14
Q

how do scientists identify the antibiotic to fight off the bacteria making you ill? (3)

A
  • doctors send blood sample to lab
  • scientists grow bacteria in agar plates
  • and treat it with different antibiotics
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15
Q

how do antibiotics affect bacteria?

A
  • kill bacteria
  • stop them from growing and reproducing
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16
Q

what is the problem with antibiotics?

A

overuse may lead to antibiotic-resistant bacteria (non-resistant bacteria are killed off)

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17
Q

explain the use of antiseptics in the prevention/treatment of disease

A
  • kill or neutralise all types of pathogens

- do not damage human tissue (so good in surgeries)

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18
Q

can one antiseptic kill all microorganisms?

A

no, different antiseptics act on different microorganisms

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19
Q

difference between a disinfectant and antiseptic?

A
  • disinfectant only applied to non-living surfaces (are harmful to human tissue)
  • antiseptic do not damage human tissue
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20
Q

what are antivirals?

A

drugs that inhibit the function of viruses (usually by preventing them from replicating)

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21
Q

can antivirals kill viruses?

and explain why

A

no, not directly

  • as viruses go into cells, and so antiviral drugs would have to kill body cells as well (and they don’t)
  • also, viruses aren’t really alive
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22
Q

how can antivirals treat viral diseases? (4)

A
  • blocking virus from entering a host cell
  • preventing mature viruses from leaving host cell
  • preventing virus from inserting genetic data into host cell’s DNA (and therefore preventing reproduction)
  • boosting immune system
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23
Q

are most antiviral drugs specific?

A

yes, they are designed to act on one type of cell

24
Q

what is the problem with antiviral drugs?

A
  • hard to produce an effective antiviral
  • as viruses mutate very fast
  • and so would not be effective
25
Q

what are antiseptics commonly used to do?

A

sterilise a wound to avoid infection + spread of disease

26
Q

define a zone of inhibition

A

the area on an agar plate where bacteria cannot grow (as antibiotics kill it)

27
Q

what does the zone of inhibition show?

A

the effectiveness of an antibiotic

28
Q

how do you measure the zone of inhibition?

A

calculate the area of it (using πR²)

  • ie. measure diameter (then divide by 2)
29
Q

passive vs active immunity?

A

Whereas active immunity refers to the process of exposing the individual to an antigen to generate an adaptive immune response, passive immunity refers to the transfer of antibodies from one individual to another. Passive immunity provides immediate but short-lived protection, lasting several weeks up to 3 or 4 months.

30
Q

explain what an aseptic technique is

A

a technique used to ensure that no foreign micro-organisms are introduced into a sample being tested

31
Q

what is the use of alcohol in culturing organisms?

A

acts as a disinfectant to sterilize equipment + the working area

32
Q

what is the use of flaming when culturing organisms?

A
  • flame the neck of test tubes
  • causes air to expand + push bacteria away
  • kills bacteria on neck of tube
  • ensures no microorganisms enter the mouth of the vessel + contaminate medium
33
Q

what is autoclaving?

A

a pressurised chamber where apparatus is exposed to high pressure stem, high temp for 15ish minutes

34
Q

how is autoclaving used in culturing organisms? (2)

A
  • kills all microoganisms present, which sterilises apparatus
  • prevents unwanted contamination
35
Q

give 3 measures to stop contaminants falling onto/into the growth media

A
  • work carried close to bunsen burner flame (creates updraught of warm air to carry away airborne microorganisms)
  • lids kept on bottles + dishes at all time
  • wearing gloves (prevent skin to sample)
36
Q

what must you remember about sealing a petri dish?

A

do not tape around circumference (microbes need oxygen)

  • do not want to encourage growth of anaerobic bacteria (more harmful)
37
Q

why are petri dishes incubated in schools at no higher than 25C?

A

do not want to grow at body temp (easily infect)

38
Q

what does the term innoculate mean?

A

intentionally introduce a microorganism to an organism

39
Q

what is the growth medium used to grow bacteria?

A

agar jelly

40
Q

how should petri dishes be stored and labelled?

A
  • stored upside down (so condensation does not contaminate bacteria
  • labelled on base (if lid falls off, the bacteria is still labelled)
41
Q

how to sterilise inoculation wire? (2)

A
  • dip in ethanol
  • hold over roaring flame
42
Q

where do new medicines usually come from? (2)

A
  • plant extracts (ie. aspirin)
  • microorganisms
    usually from present substances (easier than creating one from scratch)
43
Q

give an example of a medicine from microorganisms

A

the antibiotic penicillin (from fungi)

44
Q

what are the two main stages of the development of new medicines?

A

preclinical

clinical testing

45
Q

what happens during preclinical testing?

and what is each stage used for

A
  • tested on human cells grown in lab (sometimes uses computer simulations)
    (see toxicity and if it would help)
  • drug tested on animals (often mammals)
    show effectiveness, toxicity, side effects
46
Q

what happens during clinical testing?

A
  • small dose tested on healthy humans (check safety, slowly increase dose)
  • tested on volunteers with condition (find optimum dosage + lowest toxicity + lowest dosage)
  • drug tested on large number of volunteers with condition
    (monitor side effects + safety)
47
Q

positives and negatives of using computer simulations?

A

pos - cheaply test many drugs

neg - does not show effect on entire body

48
Q

use of a double-blind test?

A
  • avoid unconscious bias

ie. doctors more alert to patient’s symptoms if they know have real drug

49
Q

what is a double blind test?

A

neither doctors nor volunteers know if theyve been given the real drug/placebo

50
Q

give two examples of a bias which is prevented by a double-blind test?

A
  • some people may feel better as they know have real drug
  • some people may report more side effects (if they know have real drug) - hyperaware
  • unconscious bias of doctors (may ask more questions, expect more from patients with the real drug)
51
Q

what is a placebo?

A

an exact replica of the drug being tested, but has no active ingredients (ie. may have a sugar solution)

52
Q

why do you have a lit Bunsen burner in the room when culturing bacteria?

A
  • hot, less dense air around Bunsen burner rises upward
  • that air (almost definitely) contains contaminants
  • contaminants rise and do not fall into growth media
53
Q

list as many aseptic techniques as you can (8 seems like a good amount)

A
  • Washing hands thoroughly
  • No food or drink allowed in the lab
  • Disinfecting work surfaces with disinfectant or alcohol
  • Not allowing the growth of microorganisms at body temperature
    (This restricts the types of microorganisms that can be used in experiments in schools to those that won’t readily invade human hosts)
  • Using flamed loops or sterile swabs when transferring cultures
  • Wearing gloves and goggles
  • Flaming culture bottlenecks to prevent contamination
  • Sterilising or disposing of all used equipment
  • Washing hands thoroughly
  • Having a lit bunsen burner in the room
    This is a measure taken to stop contaminants falling onto/into growth media
  • Only removing petri dish lids when necessary
  • Autoclaving of glassware and growth media
54
Q

Method of testing for bacterial antibiotic resistance using the disc diffusion method. (5)

A
  1. Pre-soak paper discs in the different antibiotic solutions
    - The different antibiotic solutions need to be the same concentration so that the effects of the different antibiotics can be compared
  2. Spread a sample of the diluted bacterial broth onto the surface of the sterile agar plate
  3. Lightly press the paper discs onto the surface of the agar
    - Make sure the discs are evenly distributed in the plate
    - They should not be touching the edges of the plate or any other discs
  4. Keep the agar plate in the incubator overnight
    - The incubator maintains an optimum temperature for bacterial growth
  5. Remove the agar plate from the incubator and examine the results with the petri dish lid on
55
Q

look at sme zone of inhibition

A

B4-B6 (8 decks)

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