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Bio B4-B6 > B6.3 (3) > Flashcards

B6.3 (3) Flashcards

- monoclonal antibody uses - vaccines + medicines in the treatment of disease - aspetic techniques - new medicines discovery + development

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1
Q

what is the role of monoclonal antibodies in pregnancy testing?

A
  • pregnant women produce hCG hormones (from 2 weeks) after conception (in urine)
  • role is to bind to antigens on the hCG hormone + cause a colour-change reaction
  • home pregnancy test consists of a short stick, impregnated with a band of these monoclonal antibodies. When urine containing hCG contacts the antibodies, a line appears on the stick, indicating that the woman is pregnant
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2
Q

what is the role of monoclonal antibodies in detecting diseases (such as prostate cancer)?

A
  • they can be developed to bind to specific cancerous antigens (such as ones for prostate cancer)
  • and so can bind to them and act as a marker (can confirm presence)
  • may have a fluorescent dye
  • once tumour identified = treated + removed (often at early stage)
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3
Q

what is the role of monoclonal antibodies in the treatment of diseases (like targetting cancer cells)?

A
  • they can be developed to target specific cells
    (kill them/prevent from operating efficiently)
  • can carry radioactive substances/drugs directly to cancer cells (increasing the effectiveness of the treatment. This also minimises damage to surrounding tissue)
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4
Q

what is the benefit of using monoclonal antibodies to treat cancers?

A

minimise damage to surrounding tissue and other cells (only cancer cells)

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5
Q

advantages of monoclonal antibodies? 3

A
  • bind to specific cells only (healthy cells not affected)
  • engineered to treat many diff conditions
  • can easily produce a lot of them
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6
Q

disadvantages of monoclonal antibodies? 3

A
  • difficult to attach them to drugs
  • expensive to develop
  • were produced from mice lymphocytes = often triggered immune response in humans
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7
Q

define a vaccine

A
  • a solution which
  • contains a small amount of weakened or dead versions of a pathogen which
  • stimulates white blood cells to
  • produce antibodies complimentary to the antigens
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8
Q

what does a vaccine force the immune system to do?

A

produce antibodies specific to that pathogen (by the lymphocytes)

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9
Q

what is immunity?

A

when lymphocyte cells produce enough antibodies fast enough to destroy pathogen before it causes disease

BUT PATHOGEN STILL ENTERS BODY

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10
Q

how do vaccines help in the long term?

A

upon the real infection, the body has some antibodies in the form of memory cells

(fight off disease faster and without becoming ill)

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11
Q

positives and negatives of vaccinations?

A

POS

  • eradicated many disease
  • epidemics prevented through herd immunity
  • childhood immunisations led to fewer children dying of infectious diseases

NEG

  • not always effective with providing immunity
  • can have severe allergic reactions
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12
Q

what are antibiotics?

A

medicines that kill bacterial pathogens inside the body

substances that slow down or stop the growth of bacteria .

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13
Q

would one antibiotic kill all bacteria?

A

no, different antibiotics are effective against different types of bacteria

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14
Q

how do scientists identify the bacteria making you ill?

A
  • doctors send blood sample to lab
  • scientists grow bacteria in agar plates
  • and treat it with different antibiotics
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15
Q

how do antibiotics affect bacteria?

A
  • inhibit cell processes
  • stop them from growing

(ie. stop building cell walls)
- which stops diffusion/protein synthesis

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16
Q

what is the problem with antibiotics?

A

overuse may lead to antibiotic-resistant bacteria (non-resistant bacteria are killed off)

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17
Q

explain the use of antiseptics in the prevention/treatment of disease

A
  • kill or neutralise all types of pathogens

- do not damage human tissue (so good in surgeries)

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18
Q

can one antiseptic kill all microorganisms?

A

no, different antiseptics act on different microorganisms

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19
Q

difference between a disinfectant and antiseptic?

A
  • disinfectant only applied to non-living surfaces (are harmful to human tissue)
  • antiseptic do not damage human tissue
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20
Q

what are antivirals?

A

drugs that inhibit the function of viruses (usually by preventing them from replicating)

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21
Q

can antivirals kill viruses?

and explain why

A

no, not directly

  • as viruses go into cells, and so antiviral drugs would have to kill body cells as well
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22
Q

how can antivirals treat viral diseases? (3 marker)

A
  • blocking virus from entering a host cell
  • preventing virus from releasing genetic material
  • preventing virus from inserting genetic data into host cell’s DNA
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23
Q

are most antiviral drugs specific?

A

yes, they are designed to act on one type of cell

24
Q

what is the problem with antiviral drugs?

A
  • hard to produce an effective antiviral
  • as viruses mutate very fast
  • and so would not be effective
25
Q

what are antiseptics commonly used to do?

A

sterilise a wound to avoid infection + spread of disease

26
Q

define a zone of inhibition

A

the area on an agar plate where bacteria cannot grow (as antibiotics kill it)

27
Q

what does the zone of inhibition show?

A

the effectiveness of an antibiotic

28
Q

how do you measure the zone of inhibition?

A

calculate the area of it (using πR²)

  • ie. measure diameter (then divide by 2)
29
Q

passive vs active immunity?

A

passive = not have to make own antibodies (ie. from mother’s milk)

active = have to produce own antibody (ie. vaccinations)

30
Q

explain what an aseptic technique is

A

a technique used to ensure that no foreign micro-organisms are introduced into a sample being tested

31
Q

what is the use of alcohol in culturing organisms?

A

acts as a disinfectant to sterilize equipment + the working area

32
Q

what is the use of flaming when culturing organisms?

A
  • flame the neck of test tubes
  • causes air to expand + push bacteria away
  • kills bacteria on neck of tube
  • ensures no microorganisms enter the mouth of the vessel + contaminate medium
33
Q

what is autoclaving?

A

a pressurised chamber where apparatus is exposed to high pressure stem, high temp for 15ish minutes

34
Q

how is autoclaving used in culturing organisms? 3

A
  • kills all microoganisms present
  • sterilise apparatus
  • prevents unwanted contamination
35
Q

give 3 measures to stop contaminants falling onto/into the growth media

A
  • work carried close to bunsen burner flame (creates updraught of warm air to carry away airborne microorganisms)
  • lids kept on bottles + dishes at all time
  • wearing gloves (prevent skin to sample)
36
Q

what must you remember about sealing a petri dish?

A

do not tape around circumference (microbes need oxygen)

  • do not want to encourage growth of anaerobic bacteria (more harmful)
37
Q

why are petri dishes incubated in schools at no higher than 25C?

A

do not want to grow at body temp (easily infect)

38
Q

what does the term innoculate mean?

A

intentionally introduce a microorganism to an organism

39
Q

what is the growth medium used to grow bacteria?

A

agar jelly

40
Q

how should petri dishes be stored and labelled?

A
  • stored upside down (so condensation does not contaminate bacteria
  • labelled on base (if lid falls off, the bacteria is still labelled)
41
Q

what is the main thing to remember when transferred bacteria to an agar plate?

A
  • the inoculation wire must be flamed before (heating in blue flame)
  • or dip it in pure alcohol
42
Q

in what shape are bacteria inoculated onto a petri dish? (and why so)

A
  • in streaks

- to separate them into different colonies

43
Q

where do new medicines usually come from?

A
  • plant extracts (ie. aspirin)
  • microorganisms
  • usually from present substances (easier than creating one from scratch)
44
Q

give an example of a medicine from microorganisms

A

the antibiotic penicillin (from fungi)

45
Q

what are the two main stages of the development of new diseases?

A

preclinical

clinical testing

46
Q

what happens during preclinical testing?

and what is each stage used for

A
  • drug tested using computer simulations
  • tested on human cells grown in lab
    (see toxicity and if it would help)
  • tested on bacteria, and on tissue cultures
  • drug tested on animals (often mammals)
    show effectiveness, toxicity, side effects
47
Q

what happens during clinical testing?

A
  • small dose tested on healthy humans (check safety, slowly increase dose)
  • tested on volunteers with condition (find optimum dosage + lowest toxicity)
  • drug tested on large number of people
    (monitor side effects + safety)
48
Q

positives and negatives of using computer simulations?

A

pos - cheaply test many drugs

neg - does not show effect on entire body

49
Q

use of a double-blind test?

A
  • avoid unconscious bias

ie. doctors more alert to patient’s symptoms if they know have real drug

50
Q

what is a double blind test?

A

neither doctors nor volunteers know if theyve been given the real drug/placebo

51
Q

give two examples of a bias which is prevented by a double-blind test?

A
  • some people may feel better as they know have real drug

- some people may report more side effects (if they know have real drug) - hyperaware

52
Q

what is a placebo?

A

an exact replica of the drug being tested, but has no active ingredients (ie. may have a sugar solution)

53
Q

Mechanical valves evaluation

A
  • longer lasting
  • blood clots more likely
  • patient has to take anti clotting medicine for rest of their lives
  • medication can lead to excessive bleeding
  • some patients say they can hear the valves openings and closing
54
Q

Biological valves evaluation

A
  • no additional medication required
  • ethical issues surrounding use of animal tissue
  • valve may harden
  • more likely to need further operation or another new valve • more likely to be rejected
  • more likely to need (immuno-suppressant) medication
55
Q

Explain why a placebo group is used in drug testing (3)

A
  • control
  • verifies the problem is treated
  • checks that drug is working, and not a psychological effect
56
Q

Summary of the process of developing a new medical drug (6 steps)

A
  • drug is tested using computer models and human cells grown in the laboratory. Many drugs fault at this stage because they damage cells or appear not to work.
  • Drug is tested on animals (nematode worms/fruit flies/mice) to study any side effects
  • Drug is tested on a small group on healthy human volunteers to check its safety. Testing drugs on humans is known as clinical trials.
  • Drug tested on a small number of volunteer patients who have the illness, to ensure it works.
  • Drug tested on large numbers of volunteer patients to monitor drug effectiveness, safety, dosage and side effects.
  • Drug approved and can be prescribed

Bio B4-B6 (9 decks)

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