B4

Question 1

Why study angiosperms?

Question 2

Why study angiosperms?

Answer 2

They have dominated the planet since the late Cretaceous and early tertiary periods. Their evolution and rise to dominance is closely associated with the evolution of many animals groups. Provide livestock with food, us with raw materials. They are a huge, largely untapped resource of medicines and other biotech products. They are an integral part of the ecology and biodiversity of earth.

Question 3

What Is the classification of angiosperms?

Answer 3

Phylum - anthophyta
Class - magnoliopsida, liliopsida

Question 4

What are some special features of angiosperms?

Answer 4

Flowers, ovules enclosed in carpels. Carpels develop fruit. Double fertilisation. Nutritional endosperm in seed. Xylem with vessels, phloem with sieve tube elements. Heterosporous with a very reduced male gametophyte (3 cells) and female gametophyte (7 cells). No antheridia and no archegonia. Diverse life forms.

Question 5

What are some angiosperm life forms?

Answer 5

Herbaceous forms (non-woody’)
Therophytes (annuals), monocarpic (flower, set seed, die), perennials (life more than 2 years)
Wood plants
Climbers
Shrubs
Trees
Also parasitic forms

Question 6

How are flowering plants classified into families?

Answer 6

Monocots and dicots.

Question 7

What is the difference between Monocots and dicots?

Answer 7

Monocots - one cotyledon in seed, root xylem and phloem in a ring, vascular bundles scattered in stem, leaf veins form a parallel pattern, flowering parts in threes and multiples of threes
Dicots - two cotyledons in seed, root phloem between arms of xylem, vascular bundles in a distinct ring, lead veins form a net pattern, flower parts in fours or fives and then multiples

Question 8

What is an example of monocots and dicots?

Answer 8

Monocot - palm tree
Dicot - most trees

Question 9

What is the life cycle of an angiosperm?

Answer 9

Seed germinates -> seedling (young sporophyte) -> mature sporophyte -> flowers.
Flowers produce stamens (male) and/or carpels (female). Stamens produce pollen, carpels produce ovules. After pollination and fertilisation, seeds are produced in a fruit. Seeds are dispersed but may remain dormant.

Question 10

What is the flower structure?

Answer 10

Borne singly or grouped together in an inflorescence. Each flower is formed on a receptacle. Sepals form the calyx and petals form the corolla. Stamens form the androecium (male) and carpels form the gynoecium (female).

Question 11

What are stamens?

Answer 11

They represent microsporophylls in the angiosperm flower. Stamens are made up of a filament and two-lobed anther. Each lobe has a pair of microsporangia. Diploid microspore mother cells in the pollen sacs undergo meiosis to produce tetras of haploid microspores.

Question 12

How is pollen formed?

Answer 12

Each haploid microspore develops into a pollen grain (male gametophyte = micro gametophyte) At maturity, the pollen grain consists of 3 cells - a tube cell and 2 sperm cells. Pollen grain has inner wall (intine) and a very resistant outer wall (exine) which is often elaborately sculptured. The exine is made of sporopollenin. Mature pollen grains are often packed with nutritious starch or oils. Pollen grains are released from the pollen sacs when the anthers split open.

Question 13

What are the carpels and what are they made of and how do they form?

Answer 13

Represent megasporophylls, made up of an ovary, style, stigma. Often the ovary is compound e.g. made up of two or more fused compounds. Ovules are attached to the placenta in the ovary. The fertilised ovules become the seeds. Seeds are eventually enclosed within the fruit which has developed from the ovary.

Question 14

What is the embryo sac?

Answer 14

The diploid ovule has a stalk called the funiculus and nucleus enclosed by 1 or 2 integuments. As single diploid megastore mother cell in the nucleus undergoes meiosis to produce 4 haploid megaspore cells but only one survives. The surviving haploid megaspore enlarges and its nucleus divides mitotically to produce 8 haploid nuclei.

Question 15

How does pollination and fertilisation occur?

Answer 15

If compatible pollen reaches the stigma surface, it takes up water and germinates -> pollen tube. The pollen tube grows through the stigma and style to the ovule, usually entering via the micropyle. The 2 sperm cells are liberated into the embryo sac, one fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid zygotes the other unites with the 2 polar nuclei to form a triploid cell. This is called double fertilisation. Diploid zygote develops into the embryo. Triploid cell divides to form the endosperm of the seed.

Question 16

Life cycle of an angiosperm?

Answer 16

Mature flower on sporophyte plant, anther, microsporangium and microsporocytes, microspore, generative cell and tube cell, pollen grains, stigma, pollen, sperm, style, discharged sperm nuclei.
Other part
Ovary, megasporangium, surviving megaspore, pollen tube, female gametophyte (antipodal cells, central cells, synergies, egg, sperm.
Join in the egg nucleus, fertilisation occurs, zygote, nucleus of developing endosperm, germinating seed, mature flower on sporophyte plant.

Question 17

How does seed and fruit develop?

Answer 17

The ovule becomes the seed and the ovary (carpel) wall and related structures develop into the fruit. The zygote in the ovule becomes the embryo which is nourished by the endosperm. The integument becomes the seed coat.

Question 18

What is pollination?

Answer 18

Transfer of pollen from stamen to stigma

Question 19

What is self pollination and why does it occur?

Answer 19

Plants exhibit this is they have low pollen : ovule ratio. Stamens and styles either develop together or are mature for some time. Stamens and styles often near each other in flower. Flowers must be self compatible. Advantages - pollination is assured, disadvantages - inbreeding leads to lower heterozygosity and inbreeding depression. Occasionally outbreeding will increase heterozygosity, some flowers are cleistogamouos (never open), so only self pollination is possible.

Question 20

Self pollinated plants example?

Answer 20

Many weedy, annuals. Self pollination assures a rapid and high degree of success in seed production.

Question 21

What is cross pollination and why does it occur?

Answer 21

Essential if outbreeding is to occur, flowers may be self incompatible. Flower design may prevent self pollination. Flowers may show specific adaptations that promote transfer of pollen from one flower to another.

Question 22

What physical characteristics of flowers prevent self pollination?

Answer 22

Protandry, protogyny, heterostyly, dioecy

Question 23

What is protandry?

Answer 23

When stamens develop and mature before carpels have receptive style and stigma.

Question 24

What is protogyny?

Answer 24

When carpels develop and mature before stamens

Question 25

What is heteostyly?

Answer 25

When stamens and styles at different positions in the flower

Question 26

What is dioecy?

Answer 26

Plant is either male or female.

Question 27

What are some pollen transfer methods?

Answer 27

Wind, water, insects, birds, bats, other animals

Question 28

What insects pollinate flowers?

Answer 28

Coleoptera (beetle), Diptera (flies), Hymenoptera (bees, wasps), Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths)

Question 29

What insection pollination syndrome - colour?

Answer 29

Brightly coloured flowers - usually corolla. Bees see in UV, many petals have UV reflection patterns. Petals often have guide marks. Many insects have colour preferences, bees and butterflies ignore certain colours. Beetles have poor colour vision and will visit dull flowers.

Question 30

What insection pollination syndrome - scent?

Answer 30

Different scents associated with bee, butterfly, moth and fly pollinated flowers. Bees like sweet honey smell, butterflies and moths like heavy scents. Flies may be attracted by smell of carrion. Flowers may exhibit a daily rhythm of scent production which matches the activity of the pollinators.

Question 31

What insection pollination syndrome - reward for the pollinator?

Answer 31

Pollen - rich in protein, starch, oils/fats, collected as food by bees and other insects. Some plants produce copious amounts of pollen but no nectar. Bees are excellent pollinators - very diligent pollen gatherers. Nectar - a sugar solution made up from combination of glucose/fructose/sucrose. Food for insects with sucking mouth parts. Available in nectaries which may be accessed by various insects or may be concealed deep in flower. Tongue of insect will be matched to nectar access.

Question 32

What insection pollination syndrome - mimicry?

Answer 32

Example - orchids. Produce flowers that resemble arthropod, also produce pheromone to attract male fly/bee, resulting in pseudo copulation. Insects picks up 2 bags of pollen.

Question 33

What is the morphology of insect pollinated flowers?

Answer 33

Landing platform. Evolved zygomorphy - bilateral symmetry. Insect can only approach from one direction becomes dusted with pollen underneath or above. Evolution of elegant mechanisms e.g. hinged stamens of sage deposits pollen accurately on the bee’s back. Flowers grouped into inflorescences - maximum advertisement and high foraging potential.

Question 34

What are bird pollination syndromes?

Answer 34

Birds visit flowers to feed on nectar, floral parts and insects that inhabit flowers. Bird pollinated flowers produce copious nectar, but usually have little or no scent. Most bird pollinated flowers are brightly coloured particularly red. The flowers are often large and hanging. Hummingbirds, sunbirds, sugar birds, honeyeaters.

Question 35

How does wind pollination work?

Answer 35

Massive production of pollen, dense inflorescences of flowers, plants grow in dense stands. Pendant tassels of flowers easily jostled in wind, causing release of pollen. Stamens exposed - long filaments suspending anthers. Stigmas exposed and with papillote or feathery appearance, increased surface area for interception airborne pollen.

Question 36

What is a wind pollination syndrome?

Answer 36

Small, smooth, buoyant pollen grains. Explosive anthers. Pollen released in dry weather in huge amounts. Flowers usually green or drab. No scent not nectar, zygomorphy rare.

Question 37

What are some examples of wind pollinated plants?

Answer 37

Lots of familiar trees, many herbaceous species. Grasses.