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Biology > B3- Infection and Response > Flashcards

B3- Infection and Response Flashcards

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1
Q

Define pathogen

A

A microorganism that enters the body and causes harm

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2
Q

What type of disease do pathogens cause

A

Communicable

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3
Q

Can plants and animals be impacted by pathogens

A

Yes

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4
Q

How do bacteria make people feel ill

A

Producing toxins

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5
Q

Are viruses cells

A

No

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6
Q

Where do viruses live inside you

A

Inside body cells (the host cell)

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7
Q

What makes you feel ill with a virus

A

The damage of the host cell

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8
Q

What are protists

A

Single-celled eukaryotes

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9
Q

What are parasites

A

They live on or inside other organisms and can cause them damage. They are often transported by the vector which doesn’t get the disease itself

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10
Q

What is an example of a protist

A

A mosquito carrying malaria

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11
Q

What are the 4 types of pathogens

A
  • Protists
  • Bacteria
  • Fungi
  • Virus
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12
Q

What are the 3 ways in which pathogens can be spread

A
  • Water
  • Air
  • Direct contact
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13
Q

What are the 3 viral diseases you need to know

A
  • Measles
  • HIV
  • Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)
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14
Q

What are symptoms of measles

A
  • Red skin rash

- Fever

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15
Q

What are potential complications of measles

A
  • Pneumonia

- Encephalitis

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16
Q

What is encephalitis

A

A brain infection

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17
Q

What is pneumonia

A

Lung inflammation caused by bacterial or viral infection, in which the air sacs fill with pus and may become solid. Inflammation may affect both lungs (double pneumonia) or only one (single pneumonia).

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18
Q

How is HIV transferred

A

Sexual contact by the exchange of body fluids

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19
Q

What are the initial symptoms of HIV

A

Flu like for the first few weeks

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20
Q

How long after the initial symptoms of HIV will it be until the person experiences them again

A

A few years

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21
Q

What is crucial about the time in between the first symptoms and the next ones (HIV)

A

It’s when HIV can be controlled by antiretroviral drugs

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22
Q

What does the HIV virus attack

A

The body’s immune system

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23
Q

When does HIV turn into AIDS

A

When the body’s immune system can’t cope with other infections or cancers

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24
Q

What does TMV infect

A

Plants

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25
Q

What are the symptoms of TMV

A
  • A Mosaic pattern on the leaves

- Parts of the leaves become discoloured

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26
Q

What does the discolouration in leaves cause

A

Less cell growth because it can’t carry photosynthesis

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27
Q

What is rose black spot

A

A fungus

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28
Q

What are the symptoms of rose black spot

A
  • Purple or black spots

- Leaves turn yellow and drop off

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29
Q

What plants can get rose black spot

A

Rose plants

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30
Q

How does rose black spot spreads through the environment

A

Water or wind

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31
Q

What is malaria caused by

A

A protist

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32
Q

Who is the vector for malaria

A

A mosquito

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33
Q

What are the symptoms of malaria

A

Repeating episodes of fever

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34
Q

What are the two bacteria diseases you need to know

A
  • Salmonella

- Gonorrhea

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35
Q

Salmonella is a type of bacteria that causes _ _

A

Food poisoning

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36
Q

What are the symptoms of salmonella

A
  • Fever
  • Stomach cramps
  • Vomiting
  • Diarrhea
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37
Q

How is gonorrhea caught

A

Sex

STD

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38
Q

What type of pathogen is salmonella

A

Bacteria

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39
Q

What type of pathogen is gonorrhoea

A

Bacteria

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40
Q

What are the symptoms of gonorrhea

A
  • Pain while urinating

- Thick yellow or green discharge

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41
Q

How is gonorrhea treated

A

Antibiotics

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42
Q

How can people prevent the spread of gonorrhoea

A

Use conodms

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43
Q

What are the 4 main things you can do to prevent the spread of diseases

A
  • Be hygienic
  • Destroying vectors
  • Isolating infected people
  • Vaccination
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44
Q

What are features of your body’s immune system

A
  • Skin
  • Mucus
  • Hairs
  • Hydrochloric acid
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45
Q

What is the most important part of the immune system

A

White blood cells

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46
Q

What do white blood cells do to foreign cells. What is this called

A

Engulf and digest them. Phagocytosis

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47
Q

What are the pros to vaccines

A
  • Control diseases

- Epidemics prevented

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48
Q

What are the cons to vaccines

A
  • Don’t always work

- Bad reaction

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49
Q

Define monoclonal antibodies

A

Produced in the lab using mouse lymphocytes

50
Q

What are is the process of monoclonal antibodies using mice

A

Mouse (using the mouse spleen)
○ Inject antigens into the mouse
○ White blood cells/ lymphocytes produce antibodies specific to this antigen
○ Combine white blood cell / lymphocyte with a tumour cell and this is called a hybridoma
○ Hybridoma can rapidly divide making lots of antibodies
○ Antibodies are isolated, harvested and purified

51
Q

What is a communicable disease

A

A disease caused by a pathogen which can

be passed between animals or plants eg. flu

52
Q

What is a pathogen

A

A disease-causing microorganism e.g.

bacteria

53
Q

How do bacteria cause disease?

A

Once inside the body, they divide rapidly by
binary fission. They kill cells and produce
harmful toxins

54
Q

How do viruses cause disease

A

They invade and reproduce inside living

body cells, leading to cell damage

55
Q

Give three ways in which pathogens can be

spread

A

● By air - flu, tuberculosis and the common cold are
spread by droplet infection.
● By water - fungal spores in water spread plant
diseases.
● By direct contact - common in plant diseases and
sexually transmitted infections

56
Q

Give four ways in which the spread of pathogens

can be reduced

A

● Hygiene - handwashing, disinfectants, tissues.
● Reducing contact with infected individuals -
quarantine.
● Removing vectors - use of pesticides and
insecticides, removal of habitats.
● Vaccination.

57
Q

Why is it especially important to prevent the spread

of viral diseases

A

Scientists have not yet developed cures for

many viral diseases

58
Q

What is measles

A

Measles is a serious viral disease that can
cause blindness and brain damage. The
main symptoms are a fever and a red skin
rash.

59
Q

How is measles spread

A

By air - through the inhalation of droplets

from coughs and sneezes

60
Q

What is HIV/AIDS

A

HIV is a virus which attacks and damages the
immune system until it can no longer function
properly. AIDS is the condition resulting from a
long-term HIV infection. There is no cure or
vaccine for HIV/AIDS

61
Q

How is HIV spread

A

Direct sexual contact and the exchange

of bodily fluids eg. blood, breastmilk

62
Q

How can the spread of HIV/AIDS be prevented

A 
● Use of condoms
● Screening of blood for transfusions
● Not sharing needles
● Bottle-feeding by HIV-positive mothers
● Use of antiretroviral drugs to prevent the
development of AIDS
63
Q

What is tobacco mosaic virus

A

A plant pathogen which causes leaf discolouration
when cells are damaged. Affected areas cannot
photosynthesise, reducing the crop yield. As there is
no treatment, farmers grow TMV-resistant crop
strains to avoid infection

64
Q

How is tobacco mosaic virus spread

A

Contact between infected and healthy plants.
Insects may act as vectors which transfer the
virus between different plants

65
Q

What is salmonella

A

A type of bacteria found in raw meat, poultry
and eggs. If they enter the body via food
poisoning, they can affect natural gut
bacteria

66
Q

What are the symptoms of salmonella food poisoning

A 
● Fever
● Abdominal cramping
● Vomiting
● Diarrhoea
May be fatal in very young or elderly populations due the
risk of dehydration
67
Q

How can the spread of salmonella be limited?

A

● Vaccinating animals intended for consumption
● Keep raw meat away from cooked meat
● Disinfect hands and surfaces after contact with
raw meat
● Thoroughly cook meat

68
Q

What is gonorrhoea

A

A sexually transmitted bacterial infection caused by
unprotected sex with an infected individual. Early symptoms
include yellow/green discharge from genitals and painful
urination, although it may be symptomless.
Its spread can be controlled through the use of antibiotics (no
longer penicillin as many strains are resistant) and using
condoms

69
Q

What is rose black spot

A

A fungal disease which causes purple or black
spots to develop on rose leaves. It reduces the
area of the leaf which is available for
photosynthesis and causes leaves to turn yellow
and drop prematurely

70
Q

How is the rose black spot fungus spread

A

Fungal spores are spread by the wind

and in water

71
Q

How can the rose black spot fungus be treated?

A

● Using fungicides

● Destroying infected leaves

72
Q

What is malaria

A

Malaria is a disease caused by protist pathogens.
The disease is carried from host to host by
mosquitoes, and the protists enter the human
bloodstream when they feed. Symptoms include
fever and shaking, and it may also be fatal in some
cases

73
Q

How can the spread of malaria be reduced

A 
● Using insecticides
● Using insect nets to avoid bites
● Prevent mosquito breeding by removing stagnant
water
● Antimalarial drugs
74
Q

How does the skin prevent pathogens from entering

the body?

A

● Acts as a physical barrier.
● Scab formation after skin is cut/wounded.
● Antimicrobial secretions which can kill pathogens.
● Healthy skin flora compete with pathogens and
act as an additional barrier

75
Q

How does the respiratory system prevent pathogens

from entering the body

A

● Nose - has hairs and mucus which trap
pathogens.
● Trachea and bronchi - have mucus that traps
pathogens. Ciliated cells move mucus to the
mouth so it can be swallowed.

76
Q

How does the stomach prevent pathogens infecting

the body

A

● Secretes hydrochloric acid - kills any pathogens

present

77
Q

How does phagocytosis protect us against disease

A

White blood cells (phagocytes) ingest and destroy

pathogens so they cannot infect more cells

78
Q

How does antibody production protect us against

disease?

A

White blood cells produce antibodies which are
complementary to a specific antigen on a pathogen. The binding of antibodies to antigens causes pathogens to
clump together, making them easier to destroy. In the case
of a second infection, the correct antibodies can be
produced rapidly, preventing the person getting the same disease again

79
Q

How does antitoxin production protect us against

disease

A

Antitoxins bind to toxins released by pathogens and

neutralise them

80
Q

What is a vaccination

A

Contains a dead or inactivated form of the pathogen
which stimulates white blood cells to produce
complementary antibodies to the pathogen. In the
case of a second infection, memory cells can rapidly
produce the correct antibodies and prevent illness

81
Q

What is herd immunity

A

If a sufficiently high proportion of a population are
immune to a disease (especially through
vaccination), the spread of this disease will be
limited

82
Q

What are the advantages of vaccinations

A

● They have eradicated many deadly diseases eg.
smallpox.
● Many epidemics can be prevented by
vaccinations.
● Herd immunity protects those who cannot have
vaccinations

83
Q

What are the disadvantages of vaccinations?

A

● Not guaranteed to work - might not protect
against multiple strains of a pathogen.
● May be side effects or adverse reactions

84
Q

What drugs are used to cure some bacterial diseases

A

Antibiotics - they can kill bacterial pathogens inside

the body

85
Q

How do antibiotics work

A

Antibiotics eg. penicillin kill bacterial pathogens
inside the body, but do not kill human cells. Whilst
some antibiotics kill a wide range of bacteria, it is
important that the right antibiotic is used for specific
bacteria

86
Q

Why can antibiotics not be used to treat viral

diseases

A

Antibiotics have no effect on viral pathogens as they
live inside the host’s (human) cells. Therefore, it is
difficult to design drugs that would kill the virus and
not destroy human cells at the same time.

87
Q

What is antibiotic resistance

A

Antibiotic resistance occurs when mutations lead to
individual bacteria being resistant to an antibiotic. These
bacteria are able to survive, reproduce and pass on their
alleles, leading to a greater proportion of antibiotic-resistant
bacteria. This is concerning as some types of bacteria are
becoming resistant to all known antibiotics, so the diseases that they cause cannot be cured

88
Q

How can we prevent antibiotic resistance

A

● Avoid overuse and unnecessary use of antibiotics
- eg. antibiotics are often used for viral infections.
● Finish antibiotic courses - to ensure all bacteria is
killed.

89
Q

What effect do painkillers have on infectious

diseases?

A

Painkillers can only treat the symptoms but do not

kill pathogens

90
Q

What plant is the heart drug digitalis extracted from?

A

Foxgloves

91
Q

What painkiller originates from a compound

found in willow bark

A

Aspirin

92
Q

What antibiotic was discovered by Alexander

Fleming from a type of mould?

A

Penicillin

93
Q

What are the four qualities of a good medicine

A

● Effective
● Safe
● Stable
● Able to be taken in and removed easily

94
Q

What three main factors are tested for when

developing new drugs

A

● Toxicity
● Efficacy
● Dose

95
Q

How is preclinical testing carried out

A

In a laboratory - uses cells, tissues and live animals

96
Q

How is clinical testing carried out?

A

Uses healthy volunteers and patients. Firstly, the
drug is tested at a low dose on healthy people - then
tested on patients and on a larger scale to find the
optimum dose. Often, one group receive a placebo
(not the test drug) and the other group receive the
actual drug, in order to assess its efficacy.

97
Q

What is the difference between a single-blind and

a double-blind trial?

A

In a single-blind trial, only the doctor knows whether
the patient is receiving the drug or the placebo. In a
double-blind trial, neither the patient nor the doctor
knows. Double-blind trials help remove bias on the
part of the doctor

98
Q

What is a peer review

A

Where the results of drug trials are checked over by

scientists knowledgeable in this field

99
Q

What are monoclonal antibodies (mAbs)

A

● Antibodies that are clones from one
parent cell
● Specific to one type of antigen

100
Q

Describe how monoclonal antibodies are produced

A
  1. Specific antigen injected into an animal (e.g. mouse).
  2. B-lymphocytes producing complementary antibodies extracted.
  3. B-lymphocytes fuse with myeloma cells to form hybridoma
    cells - these cells can divide and produce antibody.
  4. Hybridoma cells cultured.
  5. Monoclonal antibodies collected and purified
101
Q

Outline the uses of monoclonal antibodies

A

● Detection of pathogens
● Location of cancer cells and blood clots
● Treatment of cancer
● Used in pregnancy test kits

102
Q

What are myeloma cells

A

Type of tumour cell

103
Q

Outline the uses of monoclonal antibodies

A

● Detection of pathogens
● Location of cancer cells and blood clots
● Treatment of cancer
● Used in pregnancy test kits

104
Q

What do pregnancy kits test for

A

hCG in urine

105
Q

What does a pregnancy test consist of

A

A stick containing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) specific
to hCG:
● mAbs attached to a blue bead (free to move)
● mAbs fixed to the test stick

106
Q

Describe what happens to the test stick if a woman

is pregnant

A 
● hCG in urine binds to mAbs attached to
a blue bead.
● mAbs with hCG diffuse up dipstick.
● mAbs fixed to the stick bind to hCG.
● Blue line forms
107
Q

Describe what happens to the test stick if the

pathogen is not present

A

No hCG in urine so a blue line is not

formed.

108
Q

What is the advantage of using monoclonal

antibodies to test for pathogens

A

● Specific to one particular antigen
● Very accurate
● Quick results

109
Q

Why can monoclonal antibodies be used to target

cancer cells?

A

● Cancer cells have specific antigens called ‘tumour
markers’ on their membranes.
● mAbs are specific to one type of antigen so can be
targeted to ‘tumour markers’ without damaging other
cells

110
Q

Describe how monoclonal antibodies can be used to

diagnose cancer

A

● mAbs tagged to a radioactive substance.
● mAbs injected into the patient’s bloodstream.
● mAbs bind to ‘tumour markers’ on cancer cells.
● Emitted radiation is detected using a specialised scanner
enabling doctors to determine the location of cancer cells.

111
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used to target

drugs to cancer cells

A

● mAbs attached to an anti-cancer drug.
● mAbs injected into the patient’s bloodstream.
● mAbs bind to ‘tumour markers’ on cancer cells.
● Anti-cancer drug destroys cancer cells

112
Q

Why are cancer treatments that use monoclonal

antibodies favoured over traditional treatments?

A

● Radiotherapy and chemotherapy target rapidly dividing cells.
● Healthy cells (e.g. hair follicle cells, bone marrow cells) are
damaged as a consequence, producing unpleasant side effects.
● mAbs only target cancer cells, reducing damage to normal cells.

113
Q

How can monoclonal antibodies be used to locate

blood clots?

A

● mAbs tagged to a radioactive substance.
● mAbs target and bind to specific proteins in blood clots.
● Radiation emitted by mAbs is detected, enabling the
location of blood clots to be identified

114
Q

How do aphids cause damage to plants?

A

They use their sharp mouthparts to extract sap from
the plant phloem, weakening the plant. They are also
vectors who can transfer pathogens from diseased
plants to healthy plants

115
Q

How can we reduce the number of aphids

A

● Chemical pesticides

● Biological pest control - using ladybirds

116
Q

Why do plants need a good supply of nitrate

ions?

A

Nitrate ions are required to convert sugars
into proteins which are required for the plant
to grow. As a result, the growth of the plant
will be stunted if there is not an adequate
supply of nitrates.

117
Q

Why do plants need a good supply of magnesium

ions

A

Magnesium ions are required to synthesise
chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy during
photosynthesis. As a result, the leaves cannot
photosynthesise properly and they turn yellow
(chlorosis)

118
Q

What are the symptoms of disease in plants

A 
● Stunted growth (lack of nitrate ions)
● Spotted leaves (eg. rose black spot fungus)
● Decay/rotting
● Growths
● Malformation of stems/leaves
● Discolouration
● Presence of pests
119
Q

What are three ways in which plant disease

can be identified

A

● Reference to a gardening website or manual
● Laboratory testing
● Monoclonal antibody test kits

120
Q

Give examples of physical defence responses

used by plants

A

● Cellulose cell walls
● Tough waxy cuticle on leaves
● Outside layer on stems/bark on trees
● Leaf fall

121
Q

Give examples of chemical defence responses used

by plants

A

● Antibacterial chemicals

● Poisons

122
Q

Give examples of mechanical defence responses

used by plants

A

● Thorns and hairs to deter animals
● Leaves that droop/curl on contact
● Mimicry to trick animals

Biology (7 decks)

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