B2

Question 1

Smoking- Biological approach

Initiation
1. Genetic predisposition
2. Dopamine recpetors
3. heritability

Answer 1

1. Carmelli et al. (1991) found that genetic influences contribute about 53% of the risk of taking up smoking. Other studies range from 11% to 75% (Lodhi et al., 2016).
2. Dopamine receptors: Nicotine molecules attach to dopamine receptors in the ventral tegmental area which triggers the release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens which in turns produces feelings of pleasure. This initial ‘buzz’ can get a first-time smoker ‘hooked’.
3. Heritability: Vink et al. (2005) found 44% of the variation between individuals for smoking initiation was explained by genetic factors and 75% for nicotine dependence.

Question 2

Smoking- Biological approach

Maintenance and relapse
Dopamine
Nicotine regulation
Tolerance
Withdrawl symptoms

Answer 2

Maintenance and relapse
Dopamine: See above.
Nicotine regulation: Schachter (1977) argued that people continue smoking to regulate nicotine in their bloodstream, to keep continually activating dopamine neurons and maintain the ‘buzz’.
Tolerance: Less buzz and fewer headaches over time.
Withdrawal symptoms: The removal of anxiety/cravings negatively reinforces the addiction.

Question 3

Smoking- Learning approach

Initiation

Parental and peer role models

Positive reinforcement

Answer 3

Parental and peer role models: Social learning theory (observation, imitation, modelling, identification and vicarious reinforcement)

Positive reinforcement: Nicotine is a powerful reinforcer for its physiological effects on the dopamine reward system. The enjoyable sensations reward the smoking behaviour, so a second cigarette is more likely, and so on

Question 4

Smoking- Learning approach

Maintanence
Negative reinforcement
Classical conditioning

Answer 4

Negative reinforcement: Smokers relieve withdrawal symptoms (anxiety/impatience) by smoking again. This is negatively reinforcing because it stops unpleasant sensations.
Classical conditioning:
Before conditioning the UCS is smoking a cigarette = UCR is feelings of pleasure. The NS (smell of smoke, touch of the cigarette) produces nothing.
During conditioning the UCS (smoking) and NS (smell and feel of the cigarette) are repeatedly paired together and still produce a UCR (pleasure).
After conditioning the UCS (smoking) is removed and the NS now becomes the CS (smell of smoke, feel of a cigarette) and produces a CR (pleasure) which was the UCR.

Question 5

Smoking- Learning approach

Relapse
Conditioned cues
Self-efficacy

Answer 5

Conditioned cues: Secondary reinforcers (or conditioned cues) can be objects, people or places and they become associated (through classical conditioning) with the primary reinforcer (pleasure from smoking). This means that they become rewarding in their own right and can trigger relapse in someone who has quit smoking.

Self-efficacy: Someone with low self-efficacy will make relatively less effort to quit, be more reluctant and negative in doing so, expect a relapse, fail to seek support and revert to smoking at the first time of difficulty.