B Flashcards
Copper hoards
certain specific types of copper objects found in protohistoric contexts in the doab as well as in some other parts of the subcontinent
Core tools
stone tools made on cores, usually large in size
Cowries
marine shells, once used as currency in many parts of the world; in India cowries from the Maldive islands were used as currency from ancient times till the colonial period
Cranial capacity
brain size
Sinous
Many curves; Graceful winding movement
Chaturanga
Chess
Dakshina
sacrificial fee
Dakshinapatha
the great southern trade route
Dana
ritual giving
Darshana
literally, ‘view’; philosophy
Dhamma
a Pali word (Sanskrit, dharma), referring to the ideal conduct of an individual living in society
Dhammachakka-pavattana
Pali, literally ‘turning the wheel of dhamma’; the Buddha’s first sermon in the deer park near Benaras
Dhamma-mahamatas
a new cadre of officials created by Ashoka to propagate dhamma
Dharma
a Sanskrit word that is difficult to translate; the proper, ideal conduct of a person as a member of society; a course of action which leads to the fulfillment of the goals of human life.
Dharmashastra
a group of Sanskrit texts dealing specifically with dharma
Dharmasutras
the earliest Dharmashastra texts, written in the sutra (aphoristic) style
Diffusionist theories
theories which explain cultural innovation and change as a result of stimulus or influence from a point of origin
Digambara
literally ‘sky-clad’; a Jaina sect
Discoid core technique
a type of prepared core technique used to make stone tools
Dolmenoid cist
a megalithic chamber tomb that is partly underground
Dolmen
a megalithic chamber tomb that is fully above ground-level
Dravida
the southern style of temple architecture, marked, among other things, by a pyramidal shikhara (tower)
Dravidian
a family of languages, including Tamil, Telugu, Malayalam, and Kannada
Dvija
literally ‘twice born’; those entitled to the performance of the upanayana (sacred thread) ceremony, which is considered analogous to a second birth, viz., the upper three varnas, namely the Brahmanas, Kshatriyas, and Vaishyas
Early Harappan
the early, formative, proto-urban phase of the Harappan culture
Eight-fold Path
the path taught by the Buddha for release from suffering
Elementary family
a married couple and their children, who may or may not live together
Epigraphy
the study of inscriptions
Epi-palaeolithic
a transitional stage of stone tool making, marked by tools that are smaller than those typical of the upper palaeolithic, but smaller than microliths
Ethno-archaeology
a branch of archaeology that studies the behaviour and practices of living communities in order to interpret the archaeological evidence related to communities who lived in the past
Extended burial
a burial in which the body is laid out in an extended position
Extended family
two or more elementary families (or parts of them) joined together
Factory site
a place where tools were made
Faunal analysis
the analysis of animal bones
Feudalism school
with reference to early medieval India, a school that argues that this was a period of political and economic fragmentation
Field archaeology
the exploration and excavation of sites
Food-producing society
a society which meets at least half its food needs for at least part of the year through the domestication of animals and/or plants, in a context where animals and plants are not tied to their natural habitat
Four Noble Truths (Ariya-sachchani)
an important part of the Buddha’s teaching, viz., there is suffering; it has a cause; it can be eliminated; and the way to eliminate it is to follow the Eight-fold Path
Fractional burial
the burial of disaggregated bones
Gahapati
Pali for Sanskrit grihapati
Gaja-Lakshmi
a popular representation of the goddess Lakshmi, flanked by two elephants, sometimes holding jars in their trunks
Gana
a word which has many meanings, including an oligarchy
Garbha-griha
the inner sanctum of a temple, where the image of the main deity is placed and worshipped
Garuda
a fantastic bird, the vehicle of Vishnu
Genus
an assemblage of related species
Gotra
the clan system of the Brahmanas; sometimes also applicable to non-Brahmanas
Grantha script
a South Indian script used for writing Sanskrit
Grihastha
the householder stage in the ashrama scheme
Hagiography
sacred biography
Handaxe
a roughly triangular-shaped stone tool, usually made on cores and flaked on both sides
Henotheism/Kathenotheism
a term used by Max Mller to refer to the phenomenon in the Rig Veda, where whichever deity is invoked is spoken of as a supreme god
Hinayana
literally the lesser vehicle; a set of Buddhist schools
Historiography
the construction and writing of history
History
the study of the human past; more specifically, the study of literate societies of the past
Holocene/Recent
the seventh, still-continuing epoch of the Cenozoic era; began about 10,000 ya
Hominid
species similar to humans
Homo erectus
a hominid species that had a fully erect posture
Homo habilis
literally hand-using man; a hominid species
Homo sapiens neanderthalis
a species of Homo sapiens that became extinct
Homo sapiens
thinking man; anatomically modern humans
Household
people who share a common residence
Hundikas
bills of exchange used by traders in early medieval India
Indo-European
a family of languages that includes Sanskrit, the modern north Indian languages, and many other languages of Asia and Europe
Indo-Aryan
a sub-group of the Indo-Iranian branch of the Indo-European family of languages
Indo-Aryans
speakers of Indo-Aryan languages
In situ
in its original place
Industry
comprises similar artefacts made of the same material found at a site
Inhumation
burial
Janapada
literally, foothold of a tribe; a territorial state; a region consisting of urban and rural settlements, along with its inhabitants
Jatakas
one of the 15 books of the Khuddaka Nikaya, containing stories of the previous births of the Buddha
Jati
a word with several meanings including caste, birth, and type.
Jina
literally victor; a Jaina saint
Jiva
a word with many meanings in different traditions; in the context of Jaina philosophy, variously translated as sentient essence, life monad, or soul
Kani rights
rights over land in early medieval South India, sometimes also associated with certain duties and obligations
Kara-shasanas
tax-paying agraharas
Karma
the doctrine according to which actions have consequences that manifest themselves in present and future lives
Kharoshthi
an ancient script prevalent in the north-west
Kinship society
a pre-state society in which kinship is central
Kottam
settlement clusters in the Pallava kingdom, similar to the nadus
Kraya-shasana
a secular land-sale deed
Kshatra
secular power
Kshatrapa
a viceroy or subordinate ruler of the Scytho-Parthians; a title assumed by kings of the Kshaharata and Kardamaka dynasties
Kshatriya
the varna associated with warfare and rulership
Kula
a word with a range of meanings, including an extended patrilineal family
Language
spoken symbols of communication
Late Harappan
the post-urban phase of the Harappan culture
Levallois technique
an advanced technique of making flake tools by first preparing the core
Lineage
a group of unilineal kin
Linga
a phallic emblem of the god Shiva
Literary sources
texts, written or oral
Logo-syllabic script
a script in which each symbol stands for a word or syllable
Lokayata
an atheistic materialist philosophical school, also known as Charvaka
Lower palaeolithic
the earliest part of the palaeolithic age, which ranged between about 2 mya to 100,000 ya
Madhyamaka
a major Mahayana school founded by Nagarjuna, in which the idea of shunyata (emptiness) is of great importance
Mahajanapadas
the great states of the 6th century BCE
Mahakshatrapa
viceroy, subordinate ruler; a title assumed by some kings of the Kshaharata and Kardamaka dynasties
Mahayana
literally the greater vehicle, a set of Buddhist schools
Mandapika
a local centre of exchange, in between small periodic markets and larger trade centres
Manigramam
a powerful merchant guild of early medieval South India
Manuscripts
books or documents written by hand
Matha
monastery
Matriarchy
a social system in which dominant power and authority within the family is vested in women
Matrilineal system
a unilineal kinship system recognizing descent though the mother
Mature Harappan
the urban phase of the Harappan culture
Megalithic cultures
cultural remains found in the megaliths and at the habitation sites associated with them
Megaliths
monuments made of large, roughly-dressed slabs of stone
Menhir
a type of megalithic burial, marked by a single, large, standing stone
Mesolithic
Holocene stone age cultures, marked by the use of microliths, usually with a hunting-gathering subsistence base
Metrology
the measurement and arrangement of coins by weight
Microliths
tiny stone tools, ranging in length from under 1 cm to 5 cm
Microwear analysis
the study of wear marks on tools in order to understand their function
Middle palaeolithic
the middle part of the palaeolithic age, ranging between about 100,000 to 40,000 ya
Mithuna figures
amorous couples that occur often in the sculptural decoration of shrines
Moksha
liberation from the cycle of birth and death
Monogamy
a system in which a person has one spouse at a time
Monolatory
a belief in a supreme god while acknowledging the existence of other gods
Monotheism
a belief that there is only one god
Mukhamandapa
the porch of a temple
Multi-lineal system/cognatic system
a system which recognizes descent both through the mother and the father
Nadu
the locality, consisting of several settlements, in early medieval South India
Nagara style
the northern style of temple architecture, marked, among other things, by a curvilinear shikara (tower)
Nagarakkani
land owned and managed by the nagaram
Nagarams
market or commercial centres in early medieval South India
Nagarattar
the corporate organization of the nagaram
Nagas
male serpent deities
Nagis/Naginis
female serpent deities, consorts of the nagas
Nalayira Divya Prabandham
a work by Nathamuni, containing the hymns of the Alvar saints
Nastika schools
philosophical schools that did not accept the authority of the Vedas, e.g., Buddhism, Jainism, and Charvaka
Nataraja
The dancing Shiva
Nattar
the leading men of the nadu (locality) in early medieval South India
Nayanmars/Nayanars
The Shaiva saint-poets of early medieval South India
Negative feedback food procurement systems
food procurement systems which involve a balanced exploitation and use of food resources within an area and which discourage any change
Neolithic revolution
a phrase coined by V. Gordon Childe in order to highlight the great significance of the changes ushered in by the neolithic age
Neolithic
food-producing stone age cultures, marked by ground and polished stone tools
New Archaeology
a trend that emerged in archaeology in the 1960s; represented by the processual school
Nibbana
a term used often in the Buddhist tradition for liberation from the cycle of birth and death
Nitishastra - Kamadak
Sanskrit works on statecraft
Niyoga
levirate; the ancient custom of a widow cohabiting with her brother-in-law or another man in order to produce sons
Northern Black Polished Ware (NBP or NBPW)
a distinctive type of fine pottery with a glossy surface, made and used between c. 700 and 200 BCE
Numismatics
the study of coins
Nyaya
a philosophical school concerned primarily with logic and epistemology
Ochre Coloured Pottery (OCP)
a protohistoric pottery type found at several sites in the doab
Orthostats
vertical slabs in a megalithic chamber tomb
Painted Grey Ware (PGW)
a distinctive type of fine, grey pottery with designs painted on in black, made and used in parts of north India between c. 1000 and 500 BCE
Palaeo-anthropologists
scholars who study the biological and cultural evolution of early humans
Palaeo-botanical studies
the analysis of ancient pollen and other minute plant remains, seeds, charcoal, sediments, and geological strata
Palaeo-channel
an old course of a river
Palaeolithic
the earliest and longest part of the stone age, corresponding with the Pleistocene geological era
Palaeo-magnetic method
a dating method used in archaeology
Palaeontology
the study of the remains of dead organisms across enormous spans of time
Palaeo-pathology
the study of disease through an analysis of ancient bone remains
Pali
an ancient language belonging to the Indo-European family of languages; the language of the canon of the Theravada school
Palynology
the analysis of pollen and spores
Paramitas
perfections whose attainment led to the bodhisattva path; a Mahayana idea
Paribbajaka
Pali, literally, wanderer, renunciant
Pariharas
exemptions and privileges granted to donees in royal land grants
Parinibbana
the passing away of the Buddha
Patichcha-samuppada
Pali, the law of dependent origination; a part of the Buddhas teaching
Patriarchy
a social system in which males (usually the eldest of them) exercise dominant power and authority within the family
Patrilineal/Agnatic system
a unilineal kinship system which recognizes descent relationships through the father
Pebble tools
tools made on pebbles, in which only the working edge is flaked
Periyapuranam
A 12th century work containing hagiographies of the Nayanmar saints
Petroglyph
created when some substance of a rock surface is removed through engraving, bruising, hammering, chiselling, or scooping
Pit circle
a type of megalithic burial, marked by a circle of large stones
Plant domestication
the process of selective breeding of plants, which involves removing them from their natural habitat and growing them under artificial conditions under human control for purposes of human gain
Plate tectonics
the movement of massive tectonic plates embedded within the earth
Pleistocene
the sixth epoch of the Cenozoic age; began about 1.6 mya
Polyandry
a system in which a woman can have several husbands
Polygamy
a system in which one person can have more than one spouse at the same time
Polygyny
a system in which a man can have several wives
Polytheism
a belief in many gods
Positive feedback food procurement systems
food procurement systems where the productivity of resources increases as a result of human interference and exploitation
Post-excarnate burial
the practice where the bones of a dead person are collected and buried after the body is de-fleshed, for instance, by exposing it to the elements
Post-processualism
a school of archaeology that challenged many of the assumptions, methods, and goals of processualism, and had a more complex and nuanced understanding of material culture
Prakrit
an ancient language belonging to the Indo-European family of languages, with various dialects such as Maharashtri, Shauraseni, and Magadhi
Pramanas
grounds of knowledge
Prashasti
panegyric
Pravara
the names of one, two, three, or five supposed ancestral rishis, connected with the gotra system of the Brahmanas
Prehistory
the past before the advent of writing; the stone age
Prestations
obligatory exchanges between groups of people, involving material as well as non-material items
Primary burials
burials in which the body was directly buried in the ground
Primary/Palaeozoic era
the first of the four geological eras
Pristine state
a state which emerges from indigenous stimuli, usually with no pre-existing models
Processualism/Processual archaeology
a school of archaeology which tried to understand cultures and cultural processes holistically and emphasized the importance of explanation, generalization, and theory-building
Protohistory
a term used in different senses; a segment of the past that is transitional between prehistory and history
Purohita
Chief Minister in Arthashastra
Puram
war poems of the Sangam corpus
Purva Mimamsa
a school of Vedic exegesis- veda right
Quaternary
the fourth of the four geological eras
Rouletted ware
a pottery with a smooth surface and usually a metallic lustre, with concentric bands of rouletted designs, found especially in eastern and south-eastern India; once thought to be a foreign ware, now considered locally produced
Rusticated ware
pottery whose surface is roughened with a thick slurry of clay
Sabha
a tribal assembly mentioned in Vedic texts; the assembly of a Brahmana village in early medieval South India
Salvage archaeology
identifying endangered sites and saving them from destruction
Samana
a Pali word (Sanskrit shramana); literally, one who strives, a renunciant
Samanta
subordinate ruler; feudatory
Samhita
a collection of hymns, associated with the Vedas
Samkhya
a very ancient philosophical school which views the world as consisting of two fundamental categories of purusha (the spiritual principle) and prakriti (matter or nature)
Samskaras
literally preparation, arrangement; rituals marking important life stages
Sandhara *
a temple style with an enclosed passage for circumambulation
Sangam literature
texts in old Tamil, comprising the earliest parts of the Ettutokai, Pattuppattu, and Tolkappiyam
Sangha
a word with many different meanings including oligarchy, the Buddhist monastic order, and the Jaina monastic order
Sannyasa
the stage of complete renunciation in the ashrama scheme
Sanskritization
an idea developed by the sociologist M. N. Srinivas, referring to a tendency of lower castes to imitate and adopt norms and practices of the upper castes in order to improve their ranking in the caste hierarchy - imitate the brahmin by shudra
Sapindas
people who are held to be related to each other, an important category in Dharmashastra discussions on rules of marriage, inheritance, and rules of purity and impurity to be observed among relatives when a person died
Saptanga rajya
literally the seven-limbed state, the Arthashastra concept of the state as consisting of seven elements
Sarcophagus burial
a burial in which the funerary remains are placed in a terracotta trough
Script
writing; a system of visual communication using signs or symbols associated with specific meanings or sounds, written on some surface
Secondary burials
the practice of removing the remains of a corpse from one grave after some time and re-burying them in another grave
Secondary state
a state which has the model of an already-existing state before it, and which emerges as a result of interaction with this already-existing (pristine) state
Secondary/Mesozoic:
the second of the four geological eras
Segmentary state
a state marked by the segmentation of power; originally put forward by Southall with reference to the African Alur tribe, subsequently applied by Stein to the states of early medieval South India
Setthi
Pali (Sanskrit sreshthin); a high-level businessman associated with trade and money-lending
Shakha
a recension of a Veda
Shivaism (Shaivism)
the worship of Shiva as a supreme god
Shudra
the fourth varna, which was supposed to serve the upper three varnas
Shruti
literally that which has been heard, the Veda
Shvetambara
literally white-clad, a Jaina sect
Siddhamatrika
an ancient script, known from the 6th century CE; also known as Kutila
Site
a place where there are artefacts or any material remains of past human activity
Slip
a coating on pottery
Smriti
literally remembered texts; a category of Sanskrit texts that includes the Vedangas, Puranas, epics, Dharmashastras, and Nitishastra
Species/Specie
organisms that are similar in physical structure and behaviour, and which inter-breed with each other, or could do so if they had access to each other
State society
a society which is stratified and whose polity is marked by the existence of a state
Stratigraphic context
the precise archaeological level at which an object is found
Stri-dhana
womens wealth; various types of moveable property given to a woman on various occasions during her life-time, passed on from mother to daughter
Syadavada
literally doctrine of maybe; the Jaina doctrine of the partial nature of all statements about reality
Tamil-Brahmi
an ancient script of South India, consisting of an adaptation of the Brahmi script in order to write the Tamil language
Taniyur*
a special status given to certain brahmadeyas in early medieval South India, making them independent of the nadu wherein they were located
Terra sigilatta
moulded, decorated wares as well as undecorated, wheel-made ones made in Italy or imitations thereof; earlier referred to as Arretine ware - arikamaedu has found italian wares
Tertiary
the third of the four geological eras
Tevaram
a collection of hymns, part of the canon of South Indian Shaiva bhakti - alvar
Thermoluminescence
a scientific method used in archaeology to date inorganic material that has been heated rapidly, e.g., pottery
Tipitaka
Pali, literally the three baskets or three collections, Buddhist canonical texts; the Pali Tipitaka is the canon of the Theravada school
sutta pitika, advikanm pitika, vinaya pitaka
Tirthankara
literally, ford builder; a Jaina saint
Tirumurai
the canon of South Indian Shaiva bhakti
Tiruttondar-Tiruvantai
a work by Nambi Andar Nambi, which gives a short hagiography of the Nayanmar saints
Tiruttondar-Tokai
a work by Sundarar, which lists 62 Nayanmar saints
Torana
the gateway of a shrine
Transepts
vertical stone slabs that divide a megalithic chamber tomb into sections
Tribe
a term that is difficult to define precisely; comprises a number of related clans
Triratna
literally, the three gems; in Jainism, refers to the triple path of right faith, knowledge, and conduct
Unchambered tomb
a megalithic grave which does not have a chamber
Unilineal kinship systems
kinship systems which recognize descent relationships through either the father or the mother
Upanishads
philosophical texts that are part of the Vedic corpus
Upasaka
a male lay follower of the Buddhas teaching
Upasika
a female lay follower of the Buddhas teaching
Upper Palaeolithic
the latest part of the palaeolithic age, ranging between about 40,000 to 10,000 ya
Uttara Mimamsa
also known as Vedanta; a philosophical school that emphasized the path of knowledge as opposed to that of works or sacrifice
Ur
a non-brahmadeya village of South India; the corporate assembly of such a village
Uttarapatha
the major trans-regional trade route of northern India <>Dakshinapatha
Vaisheshika
a philosophical school of pluralistic realism - followers of science and multiple realties
Vaishya
the varna associated with agriculture, animal husbandry, and trade
Vanaprastha
the stage of partial renunciation in the ashrama scheme
Varaha
the boar incarnation of the god Vishnu - udaigiri hills ,temple- chandragupta 2’s personal temple
Varna
literally colour; the concept of four hereditary classesBrahmana, Kshatriya, Vaishya, and Shudra
Varna-samkara
the mixture of varnas due to inter-varna unions
Vassavasa*
the monsoon retreat of Buddhist monks
Vatteluttu**
An ancient South Indian script used for writing Tamil
Vedanga
literally limbs of the Veda, auxiliary texts associated with the Vedas
Vedas
four ancient Sanskrit texts, namely the Rig Veda, Yajur Veda, Sama Veda, and Atharva Veda
Velir
chieftains of South India
Vellala/Vellalar
cultivating groups of South India
Vellanvagai*
non-brahmadeya villages of early medieval South India; same as ur
Vendar
the three crowned kings of early historical South India, i.e., the Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas
Vesara
a style of temple architecture which has a blend of elements associated with the Nagara and Dravida styles; also referred to as Karnata-Dravida - Middles of north and south
Vihara
a Buddhist monastery
Vimana
the sanctum of a temple and its superstructure
Viragal
the word for a hero stone in the Tamil Nadu area
Vishnuism (Vaishnavism)
the worship of Vishnu as a supreme god
Yajamana
the person for whom the yajna (sacrifice) is performed and who bears its expenses
Yajna
sacrifice
Yakshas
deities associated with water, fertility, trees, forests, and the wilderness
Yakshis
female deities associated with fertility, consorts of yakshas
Yavana
Greeks, foreigners from the West - favours red-chillie fav
Yoga
a philosophical school which aimed at focusing the mind to achieve complete tranquility and control
Yogachara
a major Mahayana school which attached great importance to meditation as a means of attaining the highest goal
Yupa
sacrificial post
