Attachment Flashcards
1
Q
What is attachment?
A
The close two-way bond or strong emotional connection between two inidviduals like a care-giver infant
2
Q
What is reciprocity?
A
When an infant repeats an action or gesture back to a caregiver like waving at eachother- it is a give-take act and strengthens communication and bond
3
Q
What is interactional synchrony?
A
An infant mirrors the action or gesture of a caregiver but they partake at the same time in a co-ordinated, simultaneous manner to show an emotional attachment, imitation and the manifestation of sensitive responsiveness
4
Q
How are interactional synchrony and reciprocity?
A
Reciprocity is where the mother and infant respond to each other’s signals whereas interactional synchrony is a mother and infant reflecting actions/emotions in a coordinated and simultaneous manner.
5
Q
How do babies periodic alert phases relate to reciprocity and turn taking?
A
They signal a ready-for interaction like eye contact. Feldman and Eidelman (2007) showed mothers pick up and respond to their baby’s signals 2/3 of the time.
6
Q
Are babies passive in interactions with caregivers?
A
No as babies are seen to make the first ‘give’ in the give-and-take response of reciprocity like signaling in their alert phases. Brazelton et al (1975) describes the interaction as a ‘dance’ as there is a response to movement of both individuals.
7
Q
What is the Meltzoff and Moore (1977) study on attachment?
A
It looked at interactional synchrony between adults and babies of 2/3 weeks. Young infants were able to imitate specific facial and hand gestures. The adults displayed facial expressions and hand gestures which were more likely to be mirrored than chance would predict. (significant association- 0.05)
8
Q
What is the Condon and Sander (1974) study on attachment?
A
It suggested infants can mirror their body movements with speech. Videos of parents talking to newborns were analyzed frame by frame. Even newborns co-ordinate movements and gestures at the same time as speech as there was an element of turn-taking, supporting interactional synchrony.
9
Q
What study suggests that interactional synchrony is associated with good quality attachments?
A
Isabella et al (1989) observed 30 mothers and babies together assessing their degree of interactional synchrony. High levels of it were associated with better quality mother-baby attachment like emotional intensity.
10
Q
What studies contradict good quality attachments being linked to interactional synchrony?
A
Le Vine et al (1994) re[ported Kenyan mothers have little physical contact with infants but a high proportion of secure attachment.
Koepke et al (1983) attempted Meltzoff and Moore’s findings but failed to produce the same results.
11
Q
What is Tronick’s still face paradigm?
A
-A mother plays and engages with the baby
-The mother stops with a still face
-The baby would screech, point, reach out with both hands and cry
-The mother would begin to react/engage and the baby did the same
Findings: Babies are not passive in reciprocity and value attention from a caregiver. Emotional distress is caused when attention or response is not given from a caregiver
12
Q
What are strengths on research into reciprocity and interactional synchrony?
A
-Observations in controlled conditions which increases internal reliability and validity, helping capture small details
-Recorded which can be played over and used for inter-rater reliability
-Babies would be unaware of a researcher/observation which creates naturalistic behaviour
-Real-world application such as PCIT (Parent-child interaction therapy)
-Research validates precense of behaviours in attachments which can be used to grow understanding
13
Q
What are weaknesses of research into reciprocity and interactional synchrony?
A
-Difficult to interpret babies’ behaviour due to lack of co-ordination, relying on inference which increases subjectivity and decreasing empiricity
-Feldman (2012) suggests reserch gives names to observable phenomena but offers no developmental purpose
-Ethical implications- parents give consent and it causes pyschological harm to the babies
14
Q
What was Schaffer and Emerson’s aim of research?
A
Investigated formation of early attachments, specifically the age of developed emotional intensity and whom the attachment is with
15
Q
What was the Schaffer and Emerson’s sample?
A
60 babies- 31 male, 29 female from Glasgow in skilled working class families
16
Q
How often were the babies in Schaffer and Emerson’s study assessed and where?
A
Every month for the first year in their own homes and again at 18 months
17
Q
What behaviours were measured and how in Schaffer and Emerson’s study?
A
-Protests their babies showed to everyday seperations like leaving the room
-Observations assessed anxiety to strangers
18
Q
What were Schaffer and Emerson’s stages?
A
Asocial, indiscriminate, specific and multiple
19
Q
What is the asocial stage and what age does it happen?
A
0-6 weeks: Treats human and inanimate objects the same, babies sign they prefer to be with other people, babies show preference to familiar people and are more easily comforted by them
20
Q
What is the indiscriminate stage and what age does it happen?
A
6 weeks-7 months: Start to display more observable and obvious social behaviours, clear preference of humans over objects, they recognise and prefer company of familiar people and have no seperation anxiety
21
Q
What is the specific stage and what age does it happen?
A
7-9 months: Beginning of seperation anxiety/attachement to one specific person (65% of the time the mother).
22
Q
What is the multiple stage and what age does it happen?
A
9+ months: Separation anxiety is extended to others who are regularly spent time with, father is seen as a common attachment (75%) at 18 months
23
Q
What research contradicts Schaffer and Emerson’s work?
A
Bowlby (1969) believed children had one prime attachment called monotropy and other attachments were of minor significance
Carpenter (1975) found 2 week old babies showed distress after being shown their mothers face followed by someone else’s voice. This shows that babies recognise and are attracted to their mothers face
-Van Ijzendon et al (1993) believed babies form multiple attachments from birth
24
Q
What is the primary caregiver?
A
The person who spends most time with the baby, caring for its needs
25
What is the primary attachment figure?
Person whom the baby has the strongest attachment to
26
What ways do the role of the father affect the study of attachments?
-The role of men in the household is changing as 58% unpaid childcare by men
-Traditionality is changing. 75% of mothers with dependent children work so multiple attachments should be focused on
27
Why are fathers important for children and mothers in the role of attachment?
Supportive fathers provide mothers time away from childcare which reduces stress, improves self esteem and quality of the mothers relationship with her children
28
What did Schaffer and Emerson find out about babies attachment with fathers?
75% of babies had an attachment with their father by 18 months due to their protest when they left
29
What role do fathers play in a childs attachment?
Providing stimulating, playful interactions and fostering exploration, risk-taking behaviour and acting as a secondary attachment figure
30
What did Geiger's research into the role of fathers show?
1996- suggested fathers playful interactions are more thrilling while mothers are more nurturing and affectionate
31
What did Grossman et al's study show about the role of the father?
2022- longitudinal study of 44 families showed that the fathers play style was linked to the fathers own internal working model and play/stimulation was the major difference
32
What work contradicted the distinctive role of the father?
McCallum and Golombuk (2004) showed children with single mother households or lesbian households do not develop differently than heterosexual families which questions the 'distinctive role' of the father
33
What does research suggest about the impact of a lack of fatherly attachment?
Children without a father do less well in school and have higher levels of aggression which shows fathers can decrease the risk of negative developmental outcomes. Pederson (1979) showed female single mothers in lower socio-economic backgrounds have further negative outcomes.
34
What was Lamb's study into the role of the father as attachment figures?
1987- Fathers have to adapt to be more sensitive with their new role
35
What was Lucassen et al's study into the role of fathers as attachment figures?
2011- There is a more secure attachment between fathers and infants if the fathers are more sensitive to needs. Meta-analysis of studies like observations found sensitivity associated with security.
36
What did Hrdy's study show about the difference between mothers and fathers in attachment?
1999- Fathers are less able to detect low levels of infant distress compared to mothers
37
What was Field's 1978 study of the attachment figures?
4 month old babies were filmed face to fce with primary caregivers and secondary caregivers. PCF were seen to have more interactions like smiling and eye contact than SCF.
38
What factors influence the father-infant attachment?
- Types of attachments with their own parents
-Work
-Play style
-Sensitivity responsiveness levels
-Co-parenting support
-Marital intimacy
39
What are the positive impacts on the economy from the role of the father?
-Encourage policies such as shared parental leave which pushes healthier family dynamics, helping improve mental health which helps the economy with time out of work
-May introduce flexible working policies to accommodate fathers leading to improve satisfaction and productivity
-Secure attachments show better social and emotional development like higher educational attainment and economic productivity
40
What are the negative impacts on the economy with the role of the father in attachment?
-Paid paternity leave means more time out of work and more money spent on substitutes for a company
-Encourages fathers to take a more active role which may challenge cultures or industries with more rigid gender roles, hindering the FULL economic benefits
41
What are animal studies?
Studies carried out on non-human animal species for ethical or practical reasons. Animals breed faster so the evolution through generations is easier to see
42
What is imprinting?
Lorenz (1952) observed the phenomenon where bird species that are mobile from birth attach to the first moving object they see
43
What is contact comfort?
Physical and emotional comfort that an infant receives from closeness with the primary caregiver
44
What was the procedure of Lorenz's study on geese?
Lorenz divided a large group of goose eggs into two batches, half stayed normally with the mother and the other half hatched in an incubator where the first thing they saw was Lorenz
45
What did Lorenz's study show?
The incubator group followed Lorenz everywhere whereas the control group followed the mother. Lorenz marked all of the geese in an upturned box an mixed them then let them be free, to see which ducks went where. It showed imprinting is a natural occurrence and bird species imprint on the first moving object they see. The critical period is the time imprinting needs to take place which was a few hours after birth. Lorenz found that if the time period was missed, attachment would not occur. Goslings imprinted 2-4 hours after birth.
46
What research supports Lorenz's study?
Regolin and Vallortigara (199) supports Lorenz as the chicks were exposed to moving shape combinations which they followed. Young animals have innate mechanisms to imprint during the critical period.
47
What was Seebach's theory?
'Baby duck syndrome'- humans stick to one computer system and ignore the rest
48
What did Lorenz find is the impact of attachment on romantic relationships?
He observed birds that imprinted on humans and display courtship like relationships. He described a peacock reared in the reptile house of a zoo where the first moving object seen was a giant tortoise. As an adult, this bird would direct courtship behaviour towards the tortoise, suggesting sexual imprinting
49
Which research contradicts Lorenz's idea?
Sluckin (1966) questioned the critical period as when he replicated Lorenz's study with ducklings, they successfully imprinted onto him but he kept 1 duckling in isolation for 5 days. He found it was still possible to imprint and there may be a sensitive period, rather than a critical period, proving attachments can be formed beyond it
50
What was Harlow's 1958 study on monkeys?
Harlow (1958) tested the idea that a soft object can perform the same functions as a mother. He reared 16 baby rhesus monkeys with two model mothers. One was cloth, one was wire an the wire had the milk. The amount of time spent with each mother was recorded. The monkeys were frightened with loud noises from an electronic toy so they would go to the mother. A larger cage was also used to test monkeys degree of exploration with and without the mother.
51
What were the findings of Harlow's 1958 study?
The baby monkeys cuddled the cloth mother more than the wire, regardless of milk. They sought comfort from the cloth mother when frightened by mechanical teddy bear. They even stretched across to get the milk from the wire mother while being on the cloth mother. This showed that contact comfort was vital for emotional dependence and security- they cared more about it than food. Monkeys with the cloth mother visited more locations in the larger room.
52
What conclusions can be made from Harlow's 1958 monkeys?
There was a critical period of 90 days from attachment. The damage done by early deprivation was irreversible. The research helped social workers and clinical psychologists to understand that a lack of bonding in childhood can influence adult behaviour, intervening to prevent poor outcomes. (Howe, 1998)
53
What happened to Harlow's monkeys in adulthood?
Some monkeys with wire mothers were the most dysfunctional and had diorrhea. The cloth covered reared monkeys were more aggressive and less sociable than normal monkeys. When becoming mothers, they became neglectful, harmful and even killed their babies.
54
What are the strengths of animal studies?
-Practical applications like Howe's research into social work used for breeding practices in 2005.
-Supporting research like Seebach
55
What are the limitations of animal studies?
-Difficult to generalise findings and conclusions from birds/monkeys to humans
-Mammalian attachment system is more complex than birds as we have two-way attachments
-Ethical issues like pyschological harm
-Contradictory research like Sulkin
56
What is classical conditioning?
Learning by associating to trigger a response:
NS- NR
UCS-UCR
NS+ UCS- CR
CS-CR
57
What is operant conditioning?
Learning by consequence to affect the likelihood of a behaviour being repeated
58
What is SLT?
Learning new behaviours by observing, imitating and modelling others
59
What is classical conditioning in attachment?
UCS (food)- UCR (need)
NS (mother) + UCS (food)- UCR (pleasure)
NC (mother after feeding)- CR (pleasure)
60
What is the cupboard love theory of attachment?
As the caregiver meets the babies physiological needs, the baby grows attached to the caregiver
61
What challenges the idea of classical conditioning in attachment?
Lorenz- imprinting occurs before feeding
Harlow- food didn't impact attachment
Schaffer and Emerson- 39% of cases showed the mother was not the baby's main attachment figure suggesting that feeding is not the main cause of attachment
62
What is operant conditioning/ drive reduction theory in attachment?
-Hunger is the primary drive as a biological factor
-The drive of hunger is generalised to a caregiver as they provide food
-Attachment is a secondary drive learned by the association between the caregiver and satisfaction of primary drive (Sears et al. 1957)
-Positive reinforcement as a baby learns that as it cries, it will receive food and the mother shows if she adds food, it increases the babys happiness, showing a two-way bond of attachment
63
What is SLT in attachment?
-Hay and Vespo (1988) suggested parents teach their children love through modelling their actions like hugging
-Parents also reinforce loving behaviour by showing approval when babies display their own attachment behaviours like giving attention or cuddles to their parents
-Based around a two way interaction with infant and caregiver, fitting with research into reciprocity
64
What are the strengths of the learning theory in attachment?
-Face validity- it makes intuitive sense that crying gains attention and being fed leads to feelings of being safe, leading to the seeking out for more
-Supporting evidence from Hays and Vespo (1998) suggests love is taught through modelling hugging
65
What are the weaknesses of the learning theory in attachment?
-Food is the only factor considered behind attachment formation and quality meaning sensitivity responsiveness and developing reciprocity, over simplifying it
- Evidence from Lorenz, Harlow and Schaffer and Emerson contradict this
-Learning theory is general and based off animal research meaning controlled research of babies would be unethical, leading to a lack of application of real world scenarios
66
What theory challenges the learning theory of attachment?
Bowlby's monotropic theory- the argument attachment is biologically programmed for evolutionary purposes
67
What did Bowlby argue about food in attachment?
He argued that babies only need food occasionally but constantly require emotional security and closeness that an attachment figure provides. This argues against the learning theory that states food is the main reason for formation of attachments
68
What is monotropy?
One particular attachment is of central importance to a child's development, labelled as the 'mother figure'
69
What is the law of continuity?
The more constant and predictable a child's care, the better quality of their attachment
70
What is the law of accumulated seperation?
Seperation from a baby adds up and can result in distance between a baby and caregiver. Bowlby suggested a zero dose is the safest and the baby should have all attention
71
What are social releasers?
Ways in which a baby communicates with the caregiver to ellicit attention or a response such as smiling, cooing and gripping. These are innate behaviours
72
What is the critical period?
The space of time an infants attachment system is the most active and sensitive, the easiest time to form an attachment, a biologically determined window of 2 to 2 1/2 years
73
What is the internal working model?
A child forms a mental representation or blueprint of relationships with their primary caregiver. A reliable caregiver provides an expectation of reliable and positive relationships whereas an unreliable caregiver provides an expectation of a lack of consistency and negativity. Therefore, a childs future attachments and relationship habits link to their childhood experience
74
What is the study that supports social releasers?
Brazleton et al (1975) observed caregivers when ignoring their infants, would ellicit a distressed, passive or motionless response. This highlights the impact of social releasers in maintaining infant-caregiver interactions. It provides an empirical basis of support as it is a real-life piece of evidence that attachment behaviors are for biological survival and an innate process. However, the controlled environment and setting of the study reduces ecological validity and naturalistic behaviour as the infants may not act the same at home and caregiving may not involve pro-longed times of ignoring infant cues.
75
What study shows support for the internal working model?
Hazen and Shavers (1987) Love Quiz showed that early attachment influences future romantic relationships, supporting the idea of a template understood from youth. Securely attached individuals were more likely to have long lasting and secure adult relationships Therefore, it demonstrates the link between later relationships and attachment habits or styles formed as a child. However, the self report method may be subject to social desirability bias as experiences of childhood attachment or current relationships may be inaccurately recollected or told.
Bailey et al (2007) studied 99 mothers with their one year old babies, finding that mothers who had a poor attachment with their own caregivers in youth were likely to replicate this with their own children. It demonstrates how attachment patterns are passed through generations. However, self reports are also subject to social desirability bias.
76
What is further supporting research of Bowlby's monotropic theory?
Harlow's Monkeys- Infant monkeys valued emotional bond, connection and comfort over food. Harlow presented a wire mother with milk and a cloth mother without milk. It was found the rhesus monkeys would clutch onto the cloth mother for 'contact comfort', running to it when scared with a mechanical toy while still taking milk from the other wire mother. This shows how attachments are vital with emotional safety and security, driven by this rather than the accessibility of food. However, animal studies are difficult to generalise to humans as there are different social and cognitive factors that affect them differently.
77
What is a weakness of Bowlby's findings using Schaffer and Emersons study to back up the point?
Bowlby's study lacks validity due to its lack of holisticness. Some studies like Schaffer and Emerson's suggest that most infants formed primary attachments then multiple like other family members, providing the same level of comfort and reassurance as the primary caregiver. Therefore, Bowlby's emphasis of primary attachment is reductionist in overall aspects of attachment. However, there is still a possibility the primary attachment is the strongest, even if it is not better in quality
78
How do feminists view the monotropic theory?
Weakness- it reinforces outdated, old gender roles such as societal expectations that women should devote their life or time to babies instead of education or employment. Burman (1994) stated the 'law of accumulated seperation' surrounds the idea of work with guilt for mothers, damaging the emotional and social development of their baby if going to work. This can lead to policies or attitutes that restrict women of their economic and social freedoms. It has real world implications however Schaffer and Emerson suggest multiple attachments can be formed, not just to the mother.
79
How is the monotropic theory at weakness for its views of fathers?
It underestimates the role of fathers as caregivers, seeing fathers as economic rather than emotional. Field et al showed fathers that are primary caregivers show the same sensitivity responsiveness levels with mothers that are primary caregivers, responding to a baby through smiling, holding and pointing. They held their baby more than secondary caregiver fathers which shows fathers can also be nurturing. Therefore, research specifically into mothers is socially sensitive and inaccurate as it marginalises fathers who are of the primary caregiver role. This has real world implications like parenting policies and paternity leave.
80
What was the Strange Situation study?
A controlled observation that took place in a room with carefully managed conditions, observed with a one-way mirror, consisting of eight 3 minute episodes with different areas. It was used to assess the child's attachment behaviours in response to seperation, reunion and strangers, which defined the security of each childs attachment
81
What is proximity in the Strange Situation study?
The infants inclination to seek closeness to the caregiver, specifically in scenarios of stress or unfamilairity
82
What is seperation distress?
The level of anxiety shown by an infant when taken away from a caregiver
83
What is stranger anxiety?
The response to the presence of a stranger
84
What is secure base behaviour?
The infants ability to explore an environment knowing they can return to a caregiver for comfort if needed
85
What is response to reunion?
The infants behaviour when reunited with a caregiver
86
What does Strange Situation define a secure attachment as?
The most desirable style with the healthiest psychological outcomes. Moderate levels of seperation anxiety and stranger anxiety with a happy response to reunion. They are confident with the surroundings and see the caregiver as a 'safe base'.
-70%
87
What does Strange Situation define an insecure-resistant attachment as?
High levels of seperation anxiety and strong attachment. Resist of comfort when reunited, showing anger or clinginess
-15%
88
What does Strange Situation define insecure-avoidant attachment as?
Low anxiety (seperation and stranger), weak attachment. Little response to reunion and avoidance of caregiver
-15%
89
Who participated in the Strange Situation study and why is this a weakness?
100 American babies ranging from 12-18 months which doesn't include other cultures so shows ethnocentrism
90
Who coined the insecure-disorganised term and what is it?
Main and Solomon (1986)- The behaviour is a mix of resistant and avoidant, confusion and daze shown through behaviour
91
What are the stages of the Strange Situation study?
1)The child and parent enter the room
2)The child is encouraged to explore and play
3)The stranger and caregiver are in the room together
4)The caregiver leaves
5)The caregiver returns and the stranger leaves
6) The caregiver leaves the child alone
7)The stranger comes back
8)The caregiver returns and is reunited with the child
92
What sampling is used in the Strange Situation study?
Time and Systematic
93
What is evidence suggesting the importance of studying disorganised attachment style?
-Oversimplification of Attachment Types is inaccurate as some behaviour may be contradictory
-Cultural bias as Western American middle class families were used as participants but disorganised style is seen more prominently in high-stress environments such as foster care, meaning Ainsworth's types were insufficient to being universally applicable
-Predictive Validity as disorganised links to psychopathology and disorders, challenging the idea that attachment types are stable and predictable
94
What are strengths of the Strange Situation?
Controlled observation which means that extraneous variables are less likely, improving internal validity and reliability as it is more replicable due to its standardised script
95
What is an example of ethnocentrism?
Using psychological research conducted in one culture and assuming it applies to all cultures
96
97
What is the main difference between etic and emic approaches in psychology?
Etic applies theories across cultures while emic focuses on understanding behaviour within a specific culture
98
What is an example of an etic approach within attachment research?
Using the SS to classify attachment types in all cultures
99
What is cultural relativism?
All behaviour should be understood in relation to the culture in which it occurs
100
What is the Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg aim and method?
They conducted a meta analysis to look at proportions of secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-resistant attachments across a range of countries. They looked at differences within the same countries to look at variations in culture
101
What is the Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg procedure?
Looked at 32 studies with 1990 children that replicated the Strange Situation. They included 8 countries and 15/32 studies were the USA. Meta analysis is a technique used to combine multiple studies to one statistical test combining the effect size estimates from each study
102
What were the findings of the Ijzendoorn and Kroonenberg study?
-There was a wide variation between proportions of attachment types.
-Secure attachment- the most common at 75% in GBR and 50% in China
-Insecure resistant was least common in Britain and 30% in Israel
-Insecure avoidant was most common in Germany and least common in Japan
-Variations between results of the studies within the same country were 150% greater than between countries
-1 study in America 46% were securely attached compared to another study was 90%
103
What was the Ijzendoorn and Sagi (2001) study?
Intra-cultural differences were greater than inter-cultural differences. Urban areas of Japan were similar to Westernised places which shows generalising attachment is misleading. Economic and social differences can influence attachment types more than broad labels
104
What was the Tronick et al (1992) study?
Examining attachment in a collectivist African society who are raised by multiple caregivers.
-Efe infants were breastfed and cared for by multiple woman but slept with their mothers at night
-Infants showed primary attachment to their mother
-Attachment follows a universal pattern of monotropy, in shared caregiving cultures
105
What was the Grossman and Grossman (1991) study?
Attachment styles in German infants.
-They showed higher levels of insecur-avoidant attachment
-Due to child-rearing practices, encouraging independence and discouraging clingy behaviour
-Insecure avoidant attachment may not indicate security in Germany but rather a social norm for independent behaviour, which shows cultural bias
106
What is the Takahashi (1990) study?
Japanese attachment styles.
Secure- 68%
IA- 0% as independence discouraged
IR- 32%
-Seperation phase led to distress and stopping episode
-Japanese infants are used to collectivism so are not familiar to seperation, leading to more stress and misclassification.
107
What is the Simonella et al (2014) study?
Proportions of babies of attachment styles were still found in Italian babies.
-76 12 month olds were used. 50% were secure and 36 were insecure-avoidant
This is a lower rate than previous studies as it was suggested it was due to the increasing numbers of mothers working long hours and using professional childcare in Italy.
Cultural changes make a difference to patterns of security in attachment
108
What is Jin et al. (2012) study?
Comparing Korea to other countries in attachment with 87 children. Insecure and secure babies were similar to most countries with security. However, more of those classified as insecurely attached were resistant and only one more child were avoidant. Distribution of attachment types is similar to Japan
109
What conclusions can be found about cultural variations in attachment?
Secure attachment is the norm, supporting Bowlby's idea attachment is innate and universal. The research shows cultural practices have an impact on attachment type
110
What is individualist and collectivist cultures?
Individualist cultures emphasise personal independence and achievement.
Collectivist cultures emphasise family and work goals above individual needs and desires
111
What are the strengths of studies into cultural variation in attachment?
Very large sample size- 1990 babies in Van Ijzendoorn's study. This increases internal validity, reducing impact of anomalous results caused by bad methodology
112
What are the weaknesses of studies into cultural variation in attachment?
-Sampling bias- 5 studies were from collectivist cultures and 15/32 were from America meaning it is hard to geneneralise
-Claimed to study cultural variations but it studies variations of country instead. Izendoorn and Sagi found rural samples had an over-representation of insecure-resistant individuals as urban settings were similar to Western studies. Specific cultural characteristics should be addressed, not countries in general.
-Validity as Kagan (1996) linked temperment to the SS, not attachment type. Attachments are due to nurture and were a consequence of motherly behaviour
-Cultural bias- etic (universal), emic (unique) as it tries to apply a theory of technique designed for one culture, the USA for another, creating an imposed etic
-Media- the proposed alternative possibility that cross-cultural differences may reflect effects of mass media like books/programmes advocating parenting is different across cultures
113
What would be the plan for an exam question which focuses on research into cultural variations in attachment?
AO1- Explaining Ijzendoorn's research- their aim, purpose, method, findings and conclusions
A03- Strength of large sample size, limitation of cultural bias, limitation of comparing countries rather than cultures
114
What is maternal deprivation and who does it stem from?
Bowlby named the Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis as prolonged seperation or disruption from early attachment with a primary caregiver which can lead to implications with cognitive, emotional, physical and social difficulties.
115
What is deprivation?
Loss or disruption of an attachment bond that has previously been formed like a parent having to go to hospital for many months or sick or away to Army. It is a loss of access to emotional support
116
What is privation?
An attachment bond is never formed to begin with, which may happen when a child is neglected or raised in an institution without the opportunity to form
117
Why is children going through temporary seperation from parents not a constant negative?
It is a part of normal life and can't be avoided. It is essential in establishing a secure base with a parent and a child managing to grow fundamental skills of independence and growth as individuals. It reduces the opportunity for an insecure attachment to grow. Seperations can be managed and the quality of an attachment is more important than the amount of seperation.
118
Why did Bowlby believe motherly love was vital for development?
A mother figure is strongly associated with a primary caregiver and they usually have traits like nurture and kind which may impact the emotional development or levels of security they feel. Mothers create an internal working model connected with emotions
119
What are the three kinds of effects that maternal deprivation can have?
Emotional, cognitive and physical
120
How can emotional development be affected by maternal deprivation?
-Attachment problems- struggle with trust, intimacy and emotional regulation in relationships
-Affectionless Psychopathy- a lack of empathy, absence of guilt and antisocial behaviour
-Emotional instability- anxiety, depression, lack of regulation, they may experience consistent emotional distress and difficulties managing feelings
121
How can cognitive development be affected by maternal deprivation?
-Lower IQ- exploration and learning may be reduced due to the lack of security in attachment
-Learning and Attention Issues- focus may be lacking, it may be harder to hit academic targets and achievements
122
How can physical development be affected by maternal deprivation?
-Growth Delays- malnutrition or stunted growth may be a result of neglect from abuse like basic needs
-Weak Immune System- more vulnerable to illness due to neglect or emotional distress. Stress may lead to affecting hormone regulation, therefore impacting physical health
-Delayed Motor Development- physical milestones may not be reached as quickly as with a secure attachment- such as walking, talking or motor coordination. A caregivers support and encouragement is vital for this growth.
123
What is a real life example of deprivation and affectionless pyschopathy?
Charles Manson was neglected as a child by his mother who went to prison and he continued through adulthood as a cult leader, murderer and Psychopath, having no connection with empathy or humane feelings
124
What was the aim of Bowlby's 44 Thieves 1944 study?
To look at the link between affectionless psychopathy and institutionalised children
125
What was the procedure of Bowlby's 44 Thieves 1944 study?
44 criminal teenagers all accused of stealing were the sample. All thieves were interviewed by Bowlby himself for signs of affectionless psychopathy, characterized by a lack of guilt for their actions and lack of empathy for their victims. Their families were also interviewed to establish if the thieves had prolonged seperation from their mothers. This led Bowlby to be open to bias as he was already aware of which teenagers he expected to show signs of affectionless psychopathy. The sample was compared to a group of 44 non-criminal but emotionally disturbed young people
126
What did Bowlby find from the 1944 44 Thieves study?
14/44 thieves displayed signs of affectionless psychopathy
12/14 suffered maternal deprivation
2/44 in the control group showed signs of affectionless psychopathy
Bowlby also observed many of the thieves had experienced early seperations from their mothers due to adoption, hospitilisation or maternal absence, which he believed contributed to the emotional difficulties and antisocial behaviour
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What was the Goldfarb 1947 study?
Studied children in war time orphanages which showed those who spent 3+ years in institutionalised care had lower IQs, increased aggression and a lack of social maturity
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What was the Silver 1967 study?
Studied infants in poor orphanages which showed maternal deprivation led to dwarfism, delayed sexual development, sleep issues and increased appetites as a coping mechanism
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What was the Spitz 1945 study?
Studied children in poor orphanages which showed they lacked affection, leading to anaclitic depression, distress from lack of affection, emotional withdrawal and physical health problems
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What was the Levy 1953 study?
Studied early maternal deprivation on rats who had poor social behaviours and stress
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What was the Gao et al. 2010 study?
Children raised in institutions showed poorer cognitive abilities, attachment and increased anxiety and depression
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What confounding variables may be a limitation of Bowlby's study and studies on maternal deprivation?
Early trauma and institutional care which may have impacted emotional development
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What was Rutters impact on maternal deprivation and Bowlby's ideas?
Rutter made a clear distinction between deprivation and privation, highlighting privation may have more severe consequences due to no emotional foundation, rather than any. The impact of age, quality of alternative care and length of seperation should also be taken into account
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What did Lewis' 1954 study replication of 44 Thieves show?
Lewis found that early seperation did not consistently predict future criminality and other factors beyond maternal deprivation may have an impact. This supports Rutter's critiques as he believed effects of seperation are more complex and context-dependant.
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What was the Czech twins study by Koluchova in 1976?
The Czech twins were neglected and abused when young until the age of 7, when discovered they were suffering dwarfism, a lack of speech, rickets and reduced cognitive abilities. They were adopted, put in learning difficulty schools and underwent physical remediation programs, leading to them becoming typewriter mechanics with families in adulthood. This showed despite maternal deprivation in early childhood, developmental progress could be made
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Does Koluchova's study on the Czech twins support or critique Bowlby's ideas?
Supports as it shows the harmful effects of maternal deprivation when they were younger
Critiques as the critical period of 2 1/2 years is not applicable to this case and suggests late intervention is useful and can reverse emotional and cognitive issues.
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What are Bowlby's effects on social sensitivity and the economy?
Creates stigma- societal pressure and judgement on women to be full-time mothers, and judges parents who have no control over neglect like being ill
-Impacts on policy like childcare, parental leave and family support systems
-Cost of social services as maternal deprivation can be avoided through better parental support, healthcare and early intervention programs
Workforce impact- encouraged policies that support parents in balancing work and childcare, leading to better economic outcomes
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What are Bowlby's impacts on gender and society?
Focus on the mother- contributes to gender bias and traditionality surrounding gender roles
Exclusion of other caregivers like in multi-caregiver cultures or other significant roles
Emphasis on early intervention- increases awareness on parenting programs if neglectful
Childcare policies support positivity for parents and encourage safety
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What are orphan studies?
Studies that examine the effects of early separation from parents and institutional care on children’s emotional, social and cognitive development
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What is institutionalisation?
The condition of being raised or living in large institutions such as orphans, prisons or psychiatric hospitals where individual may lack personalised or consistent care
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Who was Nicolae Ceausescu and what did he do?
Communist Leader of Romania- he required women to bear 5 children each, leading to orphanages being overcrowded. Abortion and contraception was banned. The poorly funded, overcrowded orphanages led to developmental delays, attachment disorders and emotional, social difficulties
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What was the procedure of Rutter’s 2011 study on Romanian orphans?
165 Romanian orphans were studied as part of the ERA study, English and Romanian. The orphans were adopted by families in the UK and the aim of ERA was to investigate how good the care would have to be to make up for the poor institutional care.
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What was the sample of the Rutter’s Romanian children study?
165 Romanian orphans and 52 children from the UK adopted around the same time as a control group
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What ages were the Romanian orphans assessed in Rutter’s study?
4.6,11,16and 22-26 years
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What were the findings from Rutter’s 2011 study?
The lower the IQ, the older they were when adopted. Children before the age of 6 months was 102, 6month-2years was 86, 77 for those adopted after 2 years.
Quasi autism- social withdrawal, difficultly forming attachments, emotional neglect, lack of social stimulation
Those adopted after the age of 6 months showed signs of a disinhibited attachment style, which was attention seeking, clinginess and social behaviour directed indiscriminately towards all adults. Children who spent over 6 months in institutional care showed significant delays in physical development, growth retardation, lower weight, height and delayed motor milestones
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What conclusions can be made from Rutter’s study?
Early institutionalisation has long term effects on cognitive and social development negatively. Cognitive- lower IQ, attachment is disinhibited and physical is delayed motor development
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What was the procedure of Zeanah et al (2005) study?
Bucharest Early Intervention (BEI) project- 136 Romanian children aged 6-31 months, who had spent their lives in institutions. They were assessed through psychological tests, interactional assessments, physical measurements and brain electrical activity. Their development was being assessed
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What were the findings of Zeanah’s 2005 study?
68 children assigned to institutional care , 68 children were placed into foster family homes. There was a control group of 72 children who had never lived in an institution. There were disinhibited attachment style and indiscriminate friendliness, clinginess and attention-seeking.
74% of the control group were classed as securely attached
19% of institutional group were securely attachment whereas 44% of disinhibited attachment
Children placed in foster care before 6 months showed better attachment than those placed later
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What was the conclusion of Zeanah’s 2005 study?
-Long term effects are attachment and language development
-Attachment effects- 19% securely attached to 74% securely attached
-Sensitive period for timing of adoption
-Language development delayed
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What are the common effects on institutionalisation?
Low IQ, delayed language development, disinhibited attachment, growth restriction and quasi autism
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What are the strengths of Romanian studies?
-Neural Correlations (Chugani et al 2001)- Neurocognitive impairments in Romanian infants shows decreased brain activity in prefrontal cortex and amygdala, suggesting long term cognitive and behavioural deficits
-Theoretical Consistency- aligns with Bowlby and Harlow’s work which reinforces validity
-External validity- based on real life settings and applicable
-Long term insights- ERA and BEIP track children over time, showing potential of recovery
-Improvements in Institutionalised Care- Langton (2006) showed improvements in caregiver ratios and stimulation in institutions can reduce negative effects of deprivation
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What are the weaknesses of the Romanian child studies?
-Poor Institutionalised Care VS All Institutionalisation- may not be applicable
-Population Validity- unique group of Romanian orphans who may not apply to children of other countries
-Long Term Effects- later adulthood is unclear and it was stopped mid 20s
-Confounding Variables such as random allocation introduces factors like pre-adoption differences making it hard to draw definitive conclusions
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What is the importance of random allocation in Zeanah’s and Rutter’s study?
Rutter’s study is more realistic as the timings of adoption cannot be controlled or systematic. It has more ecological validity and wider real life application. This means Zeanah’s study has ethical implications as it is not a realistic representation of adoption. Zeanah’s= More controlled of cofounders, internal validity, participant variables are equal / Rutter’s= Lower internal validity, con founders lower
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What are childhood relationships?
Affiliations with other people in childhood such as friends, parents and teachers
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What are adult relationships?
Relationships a child has later on in life such as romantic or with their own family
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What is the internal working model?
Our mental representations of the world such as our relationship with the primary attachment, affecting perceptions of life and future relationships
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What is the continuity hypothesis?
Emotional bonds formed during early childhood with primary caregivers have a lasting influence on an individuals relationship and behaviours throughout life. It proposed the quality of attachment experienced in infancy is predictive of future relationships
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What did Kerms 1994 study show about relationships in childhood?
Attachment type is associated with the quality of peer relationships or friendships. Securely attached children are more likely to have stable or healthy relationships whereas insecurely attached children may have difficulty
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What did Wilson and Smiths 1998 study show on relationships in childhood?
A longitudinal study on 196 children from 7-11 years , looking at the link between attachment style and bullying. Securely attached were least involved, resistant were more likely to be bullied and avoidant more likely to be the bully
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What did Youngblade and Belsky’s 1992 study show on relationships in childhood?
Children who were securely attached were more confident, curious, resilient and open to communication, better at forming bonds at ages 3-5
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What did Hartup’s et al. (1993) study show on relationships in childhood?
Securely attached individuals are more popular with open communication and socially active behaviours whereas insecurely attached children may be more reliant on teachers
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What did McCarthys 1999 study on relationships in adulthood show?
40 women aged 25-44 were assessed on their relationship in connection to attachment style. Secure attachment led to trusting and lasting bonds, IR had problems with maintaining friendships whereas IA had struggles with intimacy and successful relationships
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What did Wood et als 2003 study show?
The quality of attachment relies on the interaction between two individuals attachment types- securely attached and insecurely attached people can have healthy relationships
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What did Bailey et als 2007 study show?
Mothers who had a poor quality attachment with their own mothers had a poor quality attachment with their children, supporting the idea of the internal working model
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What did Westermarks 1891 study show?
Children who grow up in intimate or close families have an unconscious aversion to sexual nature when older; to avoid inbreeding known as the ‘Westermark Effect’. Children who form friendships before 6 years old will later not have a romantic relationship with the person (low likelihood)
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What is the childhood attachment behaviour and adult relationship behaviour of someone securely attached?
Childhood- product of sensitive parenting in infancy where there are high sensitivity responsiveness levels
Adult- positive, trusting, lasting relationships where dependency is stable
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What is the childhood attachment behaviour and adult relationship behaviour of insecure resistant individuals?
Childhood- parents may have been neglectful or had low sensitivity responsiveness levels
Adult- controlling relationships, jealousy
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What is the childhood attachment behaviour and adult relationship behaviour of insecure avoidant individuals?
Childhood- caregiver may be focused on their own needs over child, lacking sensitivity, leading to emotional withdrawal of child and feeling unsure if they are loved
Adult- emotional detachment and avoidance of intimacy or relationships
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What is the background of the Love Quiz by Hazan and Shaver (1987)?
Hazan and Shaver aimed to investigate whether early attachment styles , introduced by Ainsworth and Bowlby, influence adult relationships. They proposed that childhood attachment patterns shape how people experience love and emotional bonds later in life
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What was the procedure of the Love Quiz by Hazan and Shaver in 1987?
The researchers created a Love Wuiz published into the newspaper, receiving 620 responses (205 men, 415 women). The questionnaire assessed parent/participant relationships, current romantic relationships and attachment style
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What were the findings of the Hazan and Shaver Love Quiz in 1987?
56% were securely attached
25% were avoidant attached
29% were resistant attached
Secure people had happy, trusting and lasting relationships
IA had difficulty around trust, intimacy and jealousy
IR were worried about being abandoned, with emotional highs/lows and possessiveness
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What were the conclusions of the Love Quiz by Hazan and Shaver (1987)?
Adult attachment styles closely resemble childhood attachment styles, which supports the continuity hypothesis introduced by Bowlby
Securely attachment individuals have healthier, more stable relationships
Insecurely attached individuals are linked to relationship difficulties which acts as evidence for the internal working model
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What are the strengths of studies on early attachment styles with future relationships?
-Practical Applications- understanding how early attachments affect later relationships has real world applications such as in education or parenting programmes, helping therapy and improving relationships with insecurely attached children
-Supporting research evidence like Harlows monkeys with long term effects on early attachment styles
-Consistency across studies- a range of studies assessing early attachment and adult attachment have found correlations which adds reliability to the theoru
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What are the weaknesses of research into early attachment and adult attachment?
-Deterministic as it offers no way to change or the possibility of adjusting insecure attachment types through therapy
-Alternate Explanations such as the Temperment Hypothesis by Kagan in 1984 , which argued against the Strange Situation as some children may be naturally shy or anxious
-Methodological Issues as the Love Quiz may have been subject to social desirability bias or inaccurate story telling due to memory in self report method, leading to inaccurate or data lacking validity. This evidence is correlational, not causational as other factors may impact the link
-The Internal Working Model is not falsifiable as it is a theoretical concept rather than an empirically valid and testable concept. If it is not measurable it doesn’t exist
