AS PSYCHOLOGY TERMS Flashcards
1
Q
Age of witness
A
Accuracy of witnessing an event may be influenced by the age of the witness - especially elderly and children may not witness as accurately as a focused, working professional adult, say.
2
Q
Aggression
A
Intentional or unintentional harm directed towards others
3
Q
Aim of a research project
A
What is the reason for carrying out a project, experiment or survey (research in general)? An indication and what the research intends to investigate or find.
4
Q
Antidepressant
A
Pharmaceutical drugs used to treat mood disorders especially depression
5
Q
Antipsychotics
A
Pharmaceutical drugs used to treat psychotic disorders such as symptoms of hallucinations and disturbed thinking.
6
Q
Anxiety
A
A physical tension when feeling stressed. Anxiety can affect mental abilities such as logical coherence or witnessing an event.
7
Q
Anxiolytic
A
Pharmaceutical drugs used to treat anxiety - e.g., benzodiazepines act as a sedative – slowing down the body’s functions – and are used for both sleeping problems and anxiety.
They work by increasing the effect of a brain chemical called GABA (gamma amino butyric acid). GABA reduces brain activity in the areas of the brain responsible for:
rational thought memory emotions essential functions, such as breathing The main effects of benzodiazepines are: sedation reduced anxiety muscle relaxation CRITIQUE Benzodiazepines are very effective in the short term but they may stop working if you take them continuously for more than a few months. This is because your brain adjusts to their effect, and may be hypersensitive to natural brain chemicals when they are stopped.
8
Q
Attachment
A
The emotional bond between two people, especially between a child and primary care giver (or elderly parent and child when the roles reverse!)
9
Q
Explain aversion therapy from a behaviorist point of view.
A
BEHAVIOURISM: a therapy used to create a new stimulus-response bond to suppress or alter undesirable behaviour.
10
Q
How is data arranged on a BAR CHART?
A
Vertical (y) axis shows the variable SCORE.
Horizontal (x) axis shows the variables that were MEASURED.
11
Q
Behavioural approach / behaviourism
A
An approach or school of thought that sees abnormal (and normal) behaviour as learned through conditioning processes.
Behaviourism rejects free will and is deterministic such that if X conditions occur, Y behaviour will (or probably will) happen.
12
Q
What is a behavioural category?
A
When observing participants, psychologists categorise people’s behaviour into categories such as ‘passive to authority’ or ‘aggressive to peer group’ or ‘distracted’, etc.
13
Q
What are benzodiazepines
A
Pharmaceutical drugs used to control stress be acting on neurotransmitters.
14
Q
Biological approach
A
An approach or school of thought that sees psychological problems and issues as a result of physiological origins and symptoms - accordingly, treatment focuses on bio-chemistry or altering physiological conditions.
The mind IS the brain according to this school.
E.g., depression is seen as a chemical imbalance, hence biochemical drugs may be used or surgery.
15
Q
Blank slate or ‘tabula rasa’
A
The notion that we are born without knowledge or any characteristics, personality, or behaviour dispositions. Usually referred to by behaviourists.
Implication - exposure to events in life creates your personality.
16
Q
What did John Bowlby do?
A
Attachment theorist: Bowlby applied the principles of imprinting of the care-giver to human infants. Early impressions of this relationship are then evaluated for, e.g., relationship issues later in life.
17
Q
What is a case study?
A
Investigation of a single participant/patient rather than a study of many people - useful for reviewing extraordinary issues or problems.
18
Q
Define classical conditioning
A
Behaviourist theory: we learn from the associations we make between two events - e.g., bell rings, we get food => salivation;
Brownie point explanation from Watson:
“If you pair a neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that already triggers an unconditioned response (UR) that neutral stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus (CS), triggering a conditioned response (CR) similar to the original unconditioned response.”
e. g., go to a pub with smoking friends => take out a cigarette.
e. g, enter headmaster’s office => stress :)
19
Q
Cognitive approach
A
An approach or school of though in psychology that focuses on abnormal behaviour (or any kind of behaviour) as resulting from ‘faulty’ thinking.
Treatment - challenge people’s thinking or help them to rethink their view of the world or issues.
20
Q
CBT or Cognitive Behavioural Therapy
A
An approach or school of thought within the Cognitive Approach: CBT seeks to identify errors or distortions in thinking and to help people see things differently so they may in turn act/behave differently.
21
Q
What is a ‘cognitive interview’ for witnesses?
A
Techniques used to help witnesses recall events or experiences (e.g., the police may use these to help recall stressful events).
22
Q
What is a ‘cognitive triad’?
A
A term used by Aaron Beck (1976) argues that depressed people think negatively about THEMSELVES, the WORLD, and the FUTURE.
23
Q
What is the ‘computer analogy’?
A
A cognitive approach to seeing the brain/mind as a computer. This is an analogy that divides our brain into the ‘hard drive’ (or hard wired parts) and the ‘applications’ (software) that we learn.
Other analogies - ‘our operating system’ to describe how we react/choose.
24
Q
What is a ‘condition’ in research methods?
A
Condition describes different manipulations of the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
(IV: the variable that the research alters, e.g., temperature in a room in which ppts are answering questions…)
25
What is a 'confounding variable'?
A variable that interferes with research which may then skew results.
Imagine studying two variables - maths scores and listening to Baroque versus Hip-Hop but some ppts drink coke while answering (coke is a stimulant): that would be confounding. And annoying :)
26
What does 'content analysis' mean?
A method of removing data from newspapers, magazines, internet sites, interviews, broadcasts.
Researchers may look for common patterns in word use, say.
27
Describe 'correlation'
This is a statistical technique used to explore whether two variables RELATE in some way or other. Researcher uses DEPENDENT and INDEPENDENT VARIABLES (and tries to keep it to two only)
Positive correlations increase together (e.g., fitness and time in the gym)
Negative correlations - one increases while the other variable decreases (maths scores vs alcohol units)
28
What is a 'correlation coefficient'?
A statistic describing the correlation that may exist between two variables.
+1 = perfectly positive (x goes up same rate as y goes up)
-1 = perfectly negative (x goes up at the same rate as y goes down)
0 = no correlation
Researchers speak of 'strong' or 'weak' correlations depending on the number.
0.0 to 0.3 is weak,
0.3 to 0.7 is moderate,
above 0.7 is strong.
29
What is a 'co-variable'?
| aka 'covariate'
Used in correlation research: reviewing how data may correlate that are not set up by the researcher (i.e., no dependent or independent variables) but to see if one set of data has a relationship with another.
E.g., urbanisation vs depression.
The covariate/covariable may explain a psychological issue. So, "A high level of urbanisation is associated with increased risk of psychosis and depression for both women and men."
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/urbanisation-and-incidence-of-psychosis-and-depression/AF3FDF51E9DA192097BEF153D9A02148
30
What is 'debriefing'?
It relates to ethics and how experiments are done: to avoid unnecessary harm following a psychological experiment, the ppts have the experiment explained to them afterwards.
31
What is 'deception'?
Relates to ethics: intentional misleading of ppts to secure a better experiment
32
What are demand characteristics?
When ppts latch onto how they think the researchers want them to answer/behave (usually from clues in the experiment outline)
*see 'deception' and why that may have a use!
33
What is a 'dependent variable'?
This is what the researcher is keen to measure. The data produced depend on changes to the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE.
E.g, how do test scores (DV) change if the lighting in the room is changed (IV).
34
Describe a 'directional hypothesis' (or 'one tailed hypothesis')
Given a hypothesis (what a researcher expects to find), a directional hypothesis predicts a particular relationship that may be discovered.
E.g., Eating protein and fats before a test may improve test results (positive correlation)
Smoking cigarettes may be negatively correlated with male fertility (more smoking, less sperm)
35
Describe distress
Negative stress (as opposed to eustress, or good stress) caused by STRESSORS creating a feeling that we cannot cope.
36
What is dream analysis and what school of thought (approach) uses it?
The content of people's dreams is said to have meaning, often emanating from the subconscious - in dreams repressed thoughts or feelings may be expressed.
Used by the psychodynamic school.
37
What is palliative care?
Use of treatment or interventions to suppress an abnormal behaviour or stress. (Compare with curative care)
38
What is curative care?
Use of treatment or interventions to cure an abnormal behaviour or stress. (Compare with palliative care).
39
What are ethical guidelines to a psychologist?
The boundaries within which researchers tend to work (or should work) to avoid breaching ppts rights or dignity.
Key concepts used to define the boundaries include:
consent (get if possible)
deception (avoid if possible)
debriefing (if possible)
right to withdraw (to be respected)
confidentiality (if appropriate must be respected)
protection from harm (if appropriate)
considerations regarding minors and mentally incapacitated
40
Note some key ethical issues to consider
consent (get if possible)
deception (avoid if possible)
debriefing (if possible)
right to withdraw (to be respected)
confidentiality (if appropriate must be respected)
protection from harm (if appropriate)
considerations regarding minors and mentally incapacitated
consideration of long term consequences of a trial/experiment (ppt harm, psychological harm, stress)
use of data previously gained through unethical experiments (should it be used?)
41
What is event sampling?
Recording clearly defined behaviours as they are observed.
42
Briefly explain the theory of evolution
Species develop and adapt to their environmental conditions over time. Over a long period mutations from adaptation may be passed genetically to form a new species. The mechanism is through sexual reproduction.
43
What does 'experimental design' mean?
The process of designing an experiment and how participants are allocated to the different conditions (or IV levels) in an experiment.
* experiment group with control group?
* how many ppts
* use of same or different ppts when changing conditions (independent variables)
* REPEATED MEASURES aka "within groups" (same ppts partake in each IV condition change)
* INDEPENDENT MEASURES aka "between groups" (different ppts in each IV condition)
* COUNTERBALANCE (each group does both conditions in a different order)
* MATCHED PAIRS (each IV condition uses different but similar ppts - same gender, age, profession...)
44
Describe external RELIABILITY
The extent to which something is consistent over repeated occasions.
compare with external validity
45
Describe external VALIDITY
| aka 'ecological validity'
How well does an experiment relate to real world?
46
What are EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES?
Factors or conditions that may be affecting an experiment - preferably these are to be avoided or minimised in lab experiments.
(E.g., external noises affecting ppts concentration)
47
Describe 'eye witness testimony'
A person's report on being in or observing an event such as an accident or crime.
48
What is a 'field experiment'?
```
Research that manipulates variables in a natural (real world) situation.
Kinds of variables:
building used
contrived external noise
visual environment (colours in room)
no. of confederates in a location
```
49
What is free association and which approach is it associated with?
Free association is a method where a therapist attempts to access the subconscious through providing the client with pictures or words underlined the client to freely associate other ideas or memories accordingly. It is used in psychodynamic theory.
50
What is free will?
Free well, or volition, stands for our ability to make our own choices freely, which means that what we choose is not determined by other conditions. It is opposed to determinism, which asserts that our choices are illusory.
51
What are hormones?
Hormones are chemical messages released into the bloodstream by the endocrine system that then travel to different organs around the body and have an effect. For example, when adrenaline is released the heart beats faster and blood pressure rises for the familar flight or fright response.
52
What is an hypothesis?
Hypothesis is a formalised statement of the aims of a research project. It is set out as a statement predicting what may be discovered. It can be directional (that is a positive or negative correlation as expected) or non-directional (the researcher does not know what kind of correlation is to be expected).
53
Explain independent groups design
This is also known as experimental design in which participants are allocated to different groups, each group does something slightly different in the experiment on the performance of the groups is then analysed.
54
What is an independent variable
The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated in an experiment. For example the temperature in the room, or the number of participants in a group study.
55
What are individual differences to a psychologist?
These are the things that make everybody different from one another, such as personality. It is a useful concept to use when examining statistical research, which may ignore individual differences between the participants. this may mean that an element of the psychological story is missing.
56
What is internal reliability?
This refers to an experiment being consistent with the question being asked.
Also - the extent to which a study rules out or makes unlikely alternative explanations.
So if we were examining students' ability to work under time constraints, we would want to rule out confounding variables such as the use of caffeine stimulants, say.
Other explanations to a study are called 'threats'!
57
What is internal validity?
This refers to whether the researcher has measured what they intended to do.
How confident is the researcher in finding a cause and effect?
Has the researcher removed extraneous or confounding variables?
Did the research have an effect on the results?
Example: As part of a stress experiment, people are shown photos of war atrocities. After the study, they are asked how the pictures made them feel, and they respond that the pictures were very upsetting. In this study, the photos have good internal validity as stress producers.
58
What is inter-rater reliability?
Checking whether two or more observations of the same event are consistent or not.
59
Name two types of interview
Structured or unstructured (or open or closed in business speak).
Structured interviews follow a similar pattern each time, while unstructured allow the conversation to flow in an open ended manner.
Both have their strengths and weaknesses. Consider what they may be ...
60
What is the investigator effect?
It is when a researcher unintentionally encourages a participant to behave in a certain way. This thereby nullifies the reliability of the research.
61
Why do psychologists use laboratory experiments?
Because there they can better control any independent variable they wish to test.
Typically for psychologist this is a quiet room where external noise and light distractions (extraneous variables) can be minimised.
62
What is a legitimate authority?
Somebody having a perceived higher social status that means other people may obey them more readily.
E.g. police officers but also doctors or scientists. Note the word 'perceived' - we may be wrong about their expertise or authority - experts and people in authority positions can get things wrong!
63
Briefly explain localisation of brain function.
This is a theory that particular areas of the brain are specialised for certain functions or tasks, such as memory visualisation, and analytical thinking.
64
What are matched pairs in research?
This is the use of different but similar participants in research - for instance keeping the same number of specific ages, professions, religion, race, profiles et cetera
65
Define the mean in statistics.
The main is a measure of central tendency - often referred to as the average. But recall that there are two other averages, for median and the mode.
66
What is a measure of dispersion?
The measure of dispersion reflects how to spread out the dates are around a central tendency, such as the mean.
67
What is the median?
A measure of central tendency - The middle value in a range of data.
68
What did Stanley Milgram research?
Milgram (1963) was interested in researching how far people would go in obeying an instruction if it involved harming another person. He was interested in why so many people had committed atrocities in the Nazi regime.
69
Briefly explain mindfulness (and which approach uses it)
From the POSITIVE APPROACH.
Idea is to develop a sense of the 'here and now', to raise a person's consciousness and awareness of the present - and hence their focus.
70
Explain 'misleading information'
The use of information to encourage WITNESSES to recall events that did not happen or that did not happen in real sequence. Also known as 'priming' the mind or 'leading questions'.
"Now you recall the red car that was speeding down the road...'
RED and SPEEDING are telling the ppt two things which may not be correct.
Better: Did you witness a car coming down the road? What colour was it? How fast was it travelling?
71
What is a 'mode' in statistics?
A measure of central tendency - the most common frequency.
There can be more than one mode:
E.g. 'bimodal' (two modes)
multimodal (many modes)
72
Describe 'natural experiment'
More of a survey than an experiment because the researchers do not control or cannot control any IVs (independent variables); instead they observe and take data. If a comparison is desired than a review of behaviour before and after an event may be useful (e.g., how does a by-pass affect town life), or pursue LONGITUDINAL studies - following ppts over a long period of time.
73
Describe 'natural selection'
The main mechanism in the theory of EVOLUTION: the weak or non-adaptive members of a species do not thrive and do not reproduce, while the stronger and more adaptive do - these pass their genes onto the next generation (or teach their offspring how to survive better).
74
What is naturalistic observation?
Observing the behaviour of people in their natural environment. That is outside of laboratories or psychology departments!
75
What is a negative correlation?
A correlation that shows one variable rising while the other falls.
e.g, rising temperature and ability to focus.
76
What is neuroscience?
The scientific study of the brain and nervous system. Typically used by the biological approach, which assumes that the brain is the mind and the mind is the brain.
77
What is a neurotransmitter?
This is a chemical that transmits signals between neurons In the brain, such as dopamine and serotonin. Imbalances may cause abnormal feelings or behaviour.
78
Explain nominal data
NOMinal data is NAMED data which can be separated into discrete categories which do not overlap.
A common example of nominal data is gender; male and female.
79
What is a non-directional hypothesis?
This is a hypothesis for which the researcher does not have a precise prediction. The researcher may be looking for a difference or correlation but does not know which way it will go. Also known as a two tailed hypothesis
80
What is a non-participant observation
This is when a researcher remains outside and unobserved during an experiment for observation.
81
What is the null hypothesis?
The null hypothesis is **a generally accepted statement or notion, which researchers try to nullify** by offering an alternate hypothesis.
E.g., 'young people are bad drivers' is a generalisation that can be tested for its robustness and may be found wanting - perhaps because young drivers are recently trained, have higher insurance premiums that they wish to reduce, have a black box, are more careful.
The null hypothesis (Ho) may be accepted of course, but a researcher's job is to TEST the obvious at times!
82
Define obedience
A form of social influence in which people do as they're told by an authority figure.
83
What is an observational method?
This is a research method in which the researcher observes people usually in their NATURAL ENVIRONMENT recording what they do and say.
E.g., Mary Ainsworth studied how infants responded to brief periods of separation from their mothers
84
Name some observational techniques.
1. Natural observation
2. Controlled observation
3. Covert observation
4. Overt observation
5. Participant observation
6. Nonparticipant observation.
85
What is operant conditioning and which approach is it associated with?
* Behavioural learning that is dependent on consequences, that is being rewarded or punished -
* Any action that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behaviour followed by unpleasant consequences is less likely to be repeated.
"Good boy! Good girl!" primary school teacher psychology :) or smarties for doing good work. For adults - bonuses and 'employee of the month' schemes. It is associated with behaviourism.
**Positive reinforcement** to increase frequency of behaviour.
**Negative reinforcement** increases the frequency of behaviour *when removed. *
**Punishment** - decreases the frequency of behaviour.
86
Describe the term, 'operationalise'.
This is to make something measurable. E.g. to give a score on an experiment or survey, such as this beautiful person scores an 8.
87
What is opportunity sampling
This is when the researcher chooses people close to where he or she works or socialises to ask them questions for a survey. It is done because it is convenient.
88
What is ordinal data compare to cardinal data?
Ordinal data on numbers that are given an order or rank = ORDER
Cardinal data are given an actual numbers =HOW MANY
89
Describe participant observation
This is when the researcher is directly involved in the situation been survey aid or observed. Compare this with nonparticipant observation, in which he or she is removed and unobserved.
90
What is a personality in basic psychology
The collection of common traits that make us who we are.
91
What is a pilot study?
This is an initial survey usually quite brief that is given out to a few people to get feedback from participants and also for the researcher to review before going on to a more formal study. This gives the researcher a chance to remove any problematic questions or issues.
92
Describe the positive approach.
This is the study of optimal human living that aims to help people prosper and lead healthier more satisfactory lives. It has been popularised by Martin Seligman but has a long history going back to the Ancient Greeks.
93
Describe a positive correlation
As one variable increases so does the other.
94
Describe the difference between primary and secondary sources
Primary sources are gathered by the researcher, while secondary sources are gathered from other peoples research.
95
What is progressive relaxation?
This is a technique in which the client learns to relax tension in muscles that are related to stress or anxiety to enable them to discuss or change how they react to stimuli.
96
What is the psyche to a psychodynamicist?
The mind
97
Describe the psychodynamic approach
In this approach the mind is seen as being influenced by changing and powerful unconscious forces; commonly associated with the work of Freud and his followers.
98
What is the psychological approach in general?
This is the approach that says mental health problems resulting from abnormal thoughts and feelings originate in our psychology. (How we think...)
99
Describe psychological therapies
Psychological therapies assume that mental health issues are derived from our psychology, and therefore can imply techniques such as psychoanalysis, systematic desensitisation as well as cognitive behavioural therapies.
100
What is psychosurgery
This is the therapy that aims to remove the symptoms of mental illness by destroying areas of the brain that is associated with the relevant dysfunction.
101
What is the difference between quantitative and qualitative?
Quantitated data is numerical and qualitative data is in the form of opinions or words.
102
Describe quality-of-life therapy
This is a positive approach therapy that aims to help clients identify and meet their goals and wishes in life.
103
Describe quota sampling
This is similar to stratified sample link. Proportions of different groups within the target population are calculated and hence given a quota e.g. 50, and when the quota is satisfied, any other ppts from that Segment will be ignored. E.g. a researcher may want to question 50 people from East London and 60 from West London, and so on.
104
Describe random sampling
This is a method of sampling in which all participants have an equal probability of being chosen, e.g. from electoral registration number or being pulled out of a hat.
105
Describe range in statistics
The range you will remember from maths is the highest take away the lowest, but it is called a measure of dispersion in statistics. That is, how much the data is dispersed.
106
Name for measurement scales
Cardinal, ordinal, ratio, interval. Data can be measured in any of these four styles.
107
What is ratio data.
Ratio scales are the best when it comes to measurement scales because they tell us about the order, they tell us the exact value between units, AND they also have an absolute zero–which allows for a wide range of both descriptive and inferential statistics to be applied.
Here we can use phrases such as twice as big, or 3:1 ratio.
108
What is interval scales/data
Interval scales are numeric scales in which we know not only the order, but also the exact differences between the values.
E.g. temperature, because the difference between each value is the same. For example, the difference between 60 and 50 degrees is a measurable 10 degrees, as is the difference between 80 and 70 degrees. Time is another good example of an interval scale in which the increments are known, consistent, and measurable.
109
What is rational emotive behaviour therapy (REBT)?
This is the therapy that seeks to replace irrational thoughts with rational thoughts so that behaviour can change over time. This is a cognitive theory. Example, "My life is either really good or really bad." This is a cognitive distortion that can lead to emotional issues, whereas the therapy would point out that life is more complicated then either good/bad.
110
Describe reciprocal inhibition
In systematic desensitisation a clients stress response becomes inhibited because it is incompatible with another action. E.g. if a client is very relaxed, stressful stimulus normally causing anxiety does not happen because it is counteracted by the relaxed state.
111
What is reconstructive memory?
This is the theory that we don't store exact records of events in our memory, but that when we recall information with changes according to our logic and commonsense. Memories are therefore reconstructed rather than exact replicas of an event that was witnessed or experienced.
112
Describe reinforcement
This is something that increases the probability of a behaviour happening again, used in learning theories.
113
What is reliability generally speaking?
Also noticed consistency. A study is reliable such that when repeated Its findings are similar. In observational surveys, we check whether different researchers are observing the same categories of behaviour. This is known as inter-rater reliability.
114
Describe repeated measures design
This is when each participant takes part in an experiment on more than one occasion. The person the performance is then compare it under each condition that is changed. E.g. test scores and the different temperatures, or size of room, or number of other confederates.
115
What is researcher bias?
When researchers behave in ways that may influence investigation. For examples in the language or behaviour that they use that may subtly mean something to ppts and hence change research outcomes.
116
What is sampling?
The act of choosing participants for a study
117
What is a sampling frame?
A method used to select participants from a target population based on characteristics. A population is everybody that could be targeted, while a sampling frame lists particular characteristics or names. E.g. a population study of towns and villages over 1000 people in Somerset, a sampling frame would list all of those towns and villages.
118
What is a scattergram
Also known as a scatterplot or scatter graph, it is used to depict potentially correlating data: y versus x axes and data plotted according to the surveys.
119
What are schema
A collection of ideas for people, places, activities; a cognitive framework on how we associate ideas in our minds. Example, think of amphibians and you may come up with frogs, toads, newts.
120
What is a self report
A method of getting data from people in which the ppts provide the information themselves through a questionnaire or interview.
121
What is a semistructured interview
Semistructured lies between a fully structured interview in which the same questions are asked each participant, and open interview in which no predetermined questions are formed. In the semistructured interview there are topics that the researcher will cover but in which order is very much up to the particular interviewer..
122
Describe separation anxiety
This is the stress that children show on the separation of somebody who is a primary caregiver (loved one) as well as the approach of somebody unfamiliar (fear).
123
What is snowball sampling
Used by researchers to find similar ppts, by asking current participants for referrals as they may know people of a similar characteristic being sought. E.g., Welsh speakers in London, Xanax addicts in 6th Form.
124
What is social desirability
When someone or a participant alters behaviour or responses to betray themselves in a way that is apparently desirable to society. E.g., financially prudent, professionally competent, Church going, studious. etc.
125
What is a standard deviation
This is another measure of dispersion (see the range) which is calculated by formula to describe the average distance that values lie from the mean. A low standard deviation means that the data are grouped around the mean, while a high standard deviation suggests the data are more dispersed.
126
Describe stratified sampling
This is when a researcher divides a population into strata, such as H or gender or profession and then participants are selected randomly from each strata based on a weighted proportion of the population.
E.g., if 65% of a school of 1000 are girls and 45% are boys, then 65% of a survey of 100 ppts should be girls (65 girls, 45 boys).
127
Describe stress
This is the body's way of responding to a demand placed on it, a stressor. stress may be good or bad. Good stress ("eustress") motivates us to think clearer or work more effectively, While bad stress (distress) closes down how mental abilities and we can freeze. The body goes through a biochemical response in response to stress (release of adrenaline etc)
128
What is a structured interview
The same questions are given to each participant in the same order.
129
What are summary statistics
Researchers are keen to find the measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion to provide a summary of what they have found.
130
What is systematic desensitisation
Based on the behavioural approach and classical conditioning, it is used to help reduce feelings of anxiety. This may involve teaching relaxation while increasingly stressful stimuli or introduced: e.g. calming the mind before a small spider is introduced in a glass cage… then without the cage ...and then a larger spider… And then a tarantula...
131
Describe systematic sampling
Choosing every nth person in a list.
| E.g., every fifth person on a list of 200 for a survey of 40.
132
What is a target population?
All the members of a particular group from which ppts for a survey are chosen.
E.g. students aged 16 to 17.
133
Describe time sampling.
Making observations at certain time intervals within a given period. E.g. every five minutes for 60 minutes
134
Describe the tripartite personality.
Freud's theory that the adult is made up of three components, the id, ego, and superego.
(Also used by the Ancient Greek thinker, Plato).
135
What is valid consent?
Participants must be fully informed about a study before they agree to take part. Compare deception..
136
What is validity in general?
The research investigate what it says it will investigate. In other words the researchers use appropriate measurements for the study.
137
What is a variable?
Anything that is changed or controlled in research. These can be extraneous, independent, or dependent variables.
138
What is volunteer sampling
Sampling method in which participants volunteer to take part perhaps as a result of an advert.
139
What is zero correlation?
Correlation data in which there is no relationship between variables.
e.g., number of trees planted in 2018 in UK versus number of students taking psychology.
140
Regarding the brain: what is the function of the frontal lobes?
Higher functions such as speech, thinking, motor control, and co-ordination of information from other lobes.
141
What is the function of the parietal lobes?
Reception and interpretation of sensory information.
142
What is the function of the occipital lobe?
Reception and processing of visual information.
143
Areas of the brain cortex responsible for sensory information are called....
Primary areas (rather than association areas)
144
How do neurones in the association (rather than primary) areas seem to function?
They don't appear to have specific function and seem more flexible in function and adaptation.
145
What is Broca's area known for in the brain?
Speech.
| Damage to the left frontal cortex is important for guiding the muscles in the mouth to make a speech sounds.
146
What is Wernicke's area known for in the brain?
Damage to the left temporal cortex (Wernicke's area) causes great difficulty in understanding speech.
147
What are neurotransmitters
The nervous system is made up of billions of cells called neurons which communicate with one another using electrical and chemical signals-these are neurotransmitters.
148
What are synapses?
The gap between neurons over which neurotransmitters cross.
149
Explain to aspects of communication in nervous cells.
Communication can either be an excitation or an inhibition.
Excitation means that the nurse is likely to send that message on to other note.Inhibition suggests that the nerve is less likely to pass the signal on.
Hence some drugs can affect excitation and inhibition.
150
Reduced levels of dopamine are commonly found in which common disease for older patients
Parkinson's disease.
| Increased dopamine may help reduce symptoms
151
Increased levels of dopamine or associated with which difficult to define broad spectrum of psychological disorders?
Schizophrenia.
| Use of antipsychotic drugs can help some people reduce these levels.
152
What are neurotransmitters made of?
Simple chemicals found in foods and also manufactured by the body.
For those interested (and who wouldn't be if it keeps you happy and healthy?!) ->
Acetylcholine comes from e.g., egg yolks ( 1 large egg = 147mg), meat, seafood, nuts (2 tbsps peanut butter = 18mg)
Serotonin from trytophan containing foods such as protein based foods.
Gamma-amminobutyric acida (GABA) is built up from glutamiate found in fermented foods (sauerkraut), natural protein based foods.
153
What does caffeine do?
It blocks the effects of adenosine, a neurotransmitter, that makes us sleepy - hence it is a legal stimulant.
Increases blood pressure, digestive juices, it can be a diuretic, and hence increase dehydration. As with everything - good and bad sides and individual differences are important.
154
In terms of relationship studies, what did Buss (1989) find?
Buss (1989) found that males valued physical attractiveness more wild females valued only potential and occupational status more.
155
In terms of relationship studies, what did Singh (1993) find?
Men prefer women with a low waist to hip ratio possibly indicative of higher conception rate.
156
In terms of relationship studies, what did Montoya (2007) find?
Both sexes were interested in body parts that were protective of healthy e.g. eyes skin and complexion. As well aspects relating to fertility and fitness: men focusing on hips and women preferring apparent strength and overall fitness (e.g. muscle tone)
157
Schizophrenia is associated with an excess of which chemical?
Dopamine
| - antipsychotic drug therapies include chloropromazine, clozapine.
158
Depression is associated with low levels of which two hormones?
Serotonin (drug therapy - SSRIs such as Prozac) and noradrenaline (drug therapy tricyclic antidepressants, TCAs or monoamine oxidase inhibitors MAOISs).
159
Anxiety is associated with low levels of which chemical?
Serotonin (drug therapy
160
What was trepanning?
And early form of psychosurgery in which holes were cut into skulls.
161
What is stereotactic surgery?
Destruction of very specific areas of the brain.
162
Describe the research by Raine et al 1997 (clue: brain abnormalities)
AIM: investigation into whether criminals who had committed murder and pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity brain structures different from those that are not committed murder.
METHOD: PET scans on 41 criminals alongside a control group matched by age sex and diagnosis but who had not committed murder. Ppts had stopped taking any medication for two weeks before to ensure no confounding effects.
FINDINGS: Compare to the control group the criminals were found to have less activity in prefrontal and parietal areas, but no difference in temporal areas of the brain. They also had less activity in the corpus callosum, And imbalance between the two hemispheres associated with the amygdala (R high L diminished), the hippocampus (R high, L diminished), and the thalamus (R high, L same as control). R=right, L=left.
CONCLUSION: The criminal group showed different Levels of activity in various parts of the brain. This may be related to their violent behaviour.
163
What is the id in the psychodynamic approach?
The id is, present from birth represents the unconscious depths of our psyche, and operates on a pleasure principle.
The id, according to Freud, will seek satisfaction at any cost and is not capable of moral or logical thinking.
KEY PRINCIPLE: Pleasure.
164
What is the ego in the psychodynamic approach?
The ego is the conscious part of our psyche, of which we are aware, and enables us to meet the demands of the id, which is always seeking pleasure, in a socially acceptable manner. (Emerges from 2 yrs old)
KEY PRINCIPLE: reality.
165
What is the superego in the psychodynamic approach?
The superego is unconscious and operates on the morality principle, as the individual's conscience, guiding behaviour with a sense of what is right and wrong.
It is from the superego that Freud believes that we feel guilt. It emerges at about five years of age.
KEY PRINCIPLE - morality
166
What are the 5 psychosexual stages in psychodynamic theory?
Freud posited five:
1) Oral stage 0 to 1-year-old. Satisfaction gained from putting things in the mouth. Resolution involves trusting and been able to give and receive affection from healthy relationships..
2) Anal stage, 1 to 3 years old. Pleasure again from going to the toilet and emergence of conflict when parents demand that the child uses the potty. How's the resolution involves dealing with authority figures in an appropriate manner.
3) Phallic stage, 3-5 yrs. Child has unconscious sexual desires for the opposite sex parent whilst there and punishment from same-sex parent. (Oedipus or Electra complex) This causes psychological conflict. Resolution involves internalising the values of behaviour of the same sex parent leading to development of morals and gender identity.
4) Latency 5-12 yrs old. Sexuality is dormant while the child learns gender and social rules and develops self-confidence.
5) Genital stage 12+: individual becomes interested in the opposite sex.
