A-LEVEL PSYCHOLOGY RESEARCH TERMS Flashcards
Aim of a research project
What is the reason for carrying out a project, experiment or survey (research in general)? An indication and what the research intends to investigate or find.
How is data arranged on a BAR CHART?
Vertical (y) axis shows the variable SCORE.
Horizontal (x) axis shows the variables that were MEASURED.
What is a behavioural category?
When observing participants, psychologists categorise people’s behaviour into categories such as ‘passive to authority’ or ‘aggressive to peer group’ or ‘distracted’, etc.
What is a case study?
Investigation of a single participant/patient rather than a study of many people - useful for reviewing extraordinary issues or problems.
What is a ‘condition’ in research methods?
Condition describes different manipulations of the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE
(IV: the variable that the research alters, e.g., temperature in a room in which ppts are answering questions…)
What is a ‘confounding variable’?
A variable that interferes with research which may then skew results. Imagine studying two variables - maths scores and listening to Baroque versus Hip-Hop but some ppts drink coke while answering (coke is a stimulant): that would be confounding. And annoying :) ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS (it's thundering outside - always a distraction!) INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES (we have maths whiz in the group)
What does ‘content analysis’ mean?
A method of removing data from newspapers, magazines, internet sites, interviews, broadcasts.
Researchers may look for common patterns in word use, say.
Describe ‘correlation’
This is a statistical technique used to explore whether two variables RELATE in some way or other. Researcher uses DEPENDENT and INDEPENDENT VARIABLES (and tries to keep it to two only)
Positive correlations increase together (e.g., fitness and time in the gym)
Negative correlations - one increases while the other variable decreases (maths scores vs alcohol units)
What is a ‘correlation coefficient’?
A statistic describing the correlation that may exist between two variables.
+1 = perfectly positive (x goes up same rate as y goes up)
-1 = perfectly negative (x goes up at the same rate as y goes down)
0 = no correlation
Researchers speak of ‘strong’ or ‘weak’ correlations depending on the number.
0.0 to 0.3 is weak,
0.3 to 0.7 is moderate,
above 0.7 is strong.
What is a ‘co-variable’?
aka ‘covariate’
Used in correlation research: reviewing how data may correlate that are NOT SET UP by the researcher (i.e., no dependent or independent variables) but to see if one set of data has a relationship with another.
E.g., urbanisation vs depression.
The covariate/covariable may explain a psychological issue. So, “A high level of urbanisation is associated with increased risk of psychosis and depression for both women and men.”
https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/the-british-journal-of-psychiatry/article/urbanisation-and-incidence-of-psychosis-and-depression/AF3FDF51E9DA192097BEF153D9A02148
What is ‘debriefing’?
It relates to ethics and how experiments are done: to avoid unnecessary harm following a psychological experiment, the ppts have the experiment explained to them afterwards.
What is ‘deception’?
Relates to ethics: intentional misleading of ppts to secure a better experiment
What are demand characteristics?
When ppts latch onto how they think the researchers want them to answer/behave (usually from clues in the experiment outline)
*see ‘deception’ and why that may have a use!
What is a ‘dependent variable’?
This is what the researcher is keen to measure. The data produced depend on changes to the INDEPENDENT VARIABLE.
E.g, how do test scores (DV) change if the lighting in the room is changed (IV).
Describe a ‘directional hypothesis’ (or ‘one tailed hypothesis’)
Given a hypothesis (what a researcher expects to find), a directional hypothesis predicts a particular relationship that may be discovered.
E.g., Eating protein and fats before a test may improve test results (positive correlation)
Smoking cigarettes may be negatively correlated with male fertility (more smoking, less sperm)
What are ethical guidelines to a psychologist?
The boundaries within which researchers tend to work (or should work) to avoid breaching ppts rights or dignity.
Key concepts used to define the boundaries include:
consent (get if possible)
deception (avoid if possible)
debriefing (if possible)
right to withdraw (to be respected)
confidentiality (if appropriate must be respected)
protection from harm (if appropriate)
considerations regarding minors and mentally incapacitated
Note some key ethical issues to consider
consent (get if possible)
deception (avoid if possible)
debriefing (if possible)
right to withdraw (to be respected)
confidentiality (if appropriate must be respected)
protection from harm (if appropriate)
considerations regarding minors and mentally incapacitated
consideration of long term consequences of a trial/experiment (ppt harm, psychological harm, stress)
use of data previously gained through unethical experiments (should it be used?)
What is event sampling?
Recording clearly defined behaviours as they are occur. A hit B. A hit C. A hit D. E hit A.
What does ‘experimental design’ mean?
The process of designing an experiment and how participants are allocated to the different conditions (or IV levels) in an experiment.
- experiment group with control group?
- how many ppts
- use of same or different ppts when changing conditions (independent variables)
KEY IDEAS to consider:
- REPEATED MEASURES aka “within groups” (same ppts partake in each IV condition change)
- INDEPENDENT MEASURES aka “between groups” (different ppts in each IV condition)
- COUNTERBALANCE (each group does both conditions in a different order)
- MATCHED PAIRS (each IV condition uses different but similar ppts - same gender, age, profession…)
Describe external RELIABILITY
The extent to which something is consistent over repeated occasions.
compare with external validity
Describe external VALIDITY
aka ‘ecological validity’
How well does an experiment relate to real world?
What are EXTRANEOUS VARIABLES?
Factors or conditions that may be affecting an experiment - preferably these are to be avoided or minimised in lab experiments.
(E.g., external noises affecting ppts concentration)
What is a ‘field experiment’?
Research that manipulates variables in a natural (real world) situation. Kinds of variables: building used contrived external noise visual environment (colours in room) no. of confederates in a location
What is an hypothesis?
Hypothesis is a formalised statement of the aims of a research project. It is set out as a statement predicting what may be discovered. It can be directional (that is a positive or negative correlation as expected) or non-directional (the researcher does not know what kind of correlation is to be expected).
Explain independent groups design
This is also known as experimental design in which participants are allocated to different groups, each group does something slightly different in the experiment on the performance of the groups is then analysed.
What is an independent variable
The independent variable is the variable that is manipulated in an experiment. For example the temperature in the room, or the number of participants in a group study.
What is internal reliability?
This refers to an experiment being consistent with the question being asked.
Also - the extent to which a study rules out or makes unlikely alternative explanations.
So if we were examining students’ ability to work under time constraints, we would want to rule out confounding variables such as the use of caffeine stimulants, say.
Other explanations to a study are called ‘threats’ to the experiment.
What is internal validity?
This refers to whether the researcher has measured what they intended to do.
How confident is the researcher in finding a cause and effect?
Has the researcher removed extraneous or confounding variables?
Did the research have an effect on the results?
Example: As part of a stress experiment, people are shown photos of war atrocities. After the study, they are asked how the pictures made them feel, and they respond that the pictures were very upsetting. In this study, the photos have good internal validity as stress producers.
What is inter-rater reliability?
Checking whether two or more observations of the same event are consistent or not.
Name two types of interview
Structured or unstructured. Structured interviews follow a similar pattern each time, well unstructured allow the conversation to flow in an open ended manner. Both have their strengths and weaknesses.
What is the investigator effect?
It is when a researcher unintentionally encourages a participant to behave in a certain way. This thereby nullifies the reliability of the research.
Why do psychologists use laboratory experiments?
Because there they can control the independent variable is better. Typically for psychologist this is a quiet room where external noise and light distractions can be minimised.
What are matched pairs in research?
This is the use of different but similar participants in research - for instance keeping the same number of specific ages, professions, religion, race, profiles et cetera
Define the mean in statistics.
The main is a measure of central tendency - often referred to as the average. But recall that there are two other averages, for median and the mode.
