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Zoology Semester 2 > APS124 Dyson > Flashcards

APS124 Dyson Flashcards

1
Q

British woodlands are normally…

A

broadleaved and deciduous

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2
Q

In the past woodland covered most of the UK. Now just … of the UK is wooded.

A

12%

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3
Q

What are the 3 main types of woodland?

A

Native, ancient and recent

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4
Q

Around … of uk woodlands are native. Most is broadleaf deciduous woodland. Native trees are trees that….

A

40%,

have grown in the UK naturally since the last ice age - not introduced - usually birch dominated

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5
Q

The UK has around … species of native trees and shrubs

A

50

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6
Q

Ancient woodland is..

A

woodland that has been continually wooded since 1600AD

- as planting became more common after 1600AD, and therefore pre-1600 woodland is likely to be natural and native

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7
Q

Recent woodland is woodland that..

A

has been planted or established naturally (e.g. on former heathland)

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8
Q

British trees produce very high quality…

A

leaf litter, and woodland has relatively good quality, rich soil. - this soil type covers 45% of land in the UK, showing where woodlands have previously been

  • highly valued for agriculture
  • lots of invertebrates and organic matter
  • many lowland forests cleared
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9
Q

Similar plant communities occur in similar environments because of…

A
  • similar environmental factors/stresses
  • community processes
    • competitive exclusion
    • co-existence through tolerance
    • co-existence through complementary resource use
    • dependence
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10
Q

What are the 3 components of the structures of plant communities?

A
  • Vertical structure (stratification)
  • Horizontal structure (pattern)
  • species abundance
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11
Q

Woodland has the most…

A

complex structure of any british vegetation type

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12
Q

What are the four layers of woodland (vertical structure)

A
  1. tree layer
  2. shrub layer
  3. field layer
    i. tall herbs and undershrubs
    ii. layer of low herbs
  4. ground layer (mosses and small herbs)
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13
Q

When looking at horizontal structure, what are the 3 main distribution types?

A
  • Regular (overdispersed)
  • Random
  • Clumped (underdispersed - the most common type)
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14
Q

The pattern shown by a species is a product of…

A
  • morphology and growth characteristics (e.g. individual vs spreading species)
  • seed dispersal mechanisms
  • environmental heterogeneity
  • species interactions
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15
Q

Species abundance is…

A

the amount a species contributes to the vegetation in an area
- this can be used to define a vegetation type

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16
Q

Species abundance can be measured using…

A
  • Abundance ‘guestimates’ (subjective) - e.g. DAFOR: Dominant, Abundant, Frequent, Occasional, Rare
  • Density - number of individuals per unit area - easier with young plants but not spreaders
  • Frequency - chance of finding a particular species in a sample of vegetation - estimated by examining several samples - “shoot frequency” and “root frequency”
  • Cover - generally expressed as a % - can be more than 100% if count overlapping vegetation
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17
Q

Plants have two main approaches to survival on the forest floor:

A
  • shade tolerance

- Complementary resource use

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18
Q

What are the 3 ways to be shade tolerant?

A
  • absorb as much light as possible
  • reduce your energy requirements
  • both
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19
Q

Shade plants often have …, … leaves with a single … layer - they have a large … … to … ratio

A

large, thin, palisade, surface area, weight

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20
Q

Shade plants often have … … to shading - typical of plants in partial shade conditions and less so for species in consistently deep shade

A

morphological plasticity

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21
Q

Evergreen plants have lower…

A

energy requirements as they do not need to make new leaves every year - this means they do not have to have shade type leaves

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22
Q

Shade tolerant species may respire more …, as this level has to be maintained at both high and low light intensities - this means that shade tolerant species have lower … …

A

slowly, growth rates

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23
Q

carbon gain =

A

photosynthesis - respiration

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24
Q

The amount of light where photosynthesis overtakes respiration is called the…

A

light compensation point

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25
Q

Shade tolerant plants may have a … light compensation point than plants adapted to sunny areas. This gives shade leaves an advantage at low light levels - but disadvantage at higher light levels

A

lower

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26
Q

Vernal species grow in …

A

spring

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27
Q

Aestival species grow in…

A

summer

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28
Q

Autumnal species grow in…

A

autumn

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29
Q

hiemal species grow in…

A

winter

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30
Q

Vera cycles are natural processes involving..

A

herbivores that regulate woodland formation and die off

- take around 500 years to complete

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31
Q

There were widespread grasslands during the…

A

Devensian/ last glacial period (~100,000-11650ya)

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32
Q

Sun-loving species are known as…

A

heliophile species

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33
Q

What is the current epoch called?

A

holocene (last 11,650 years)

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34
Q

What is a modern major driver of ecosystem change into grassland?

A

establishment of farming (agriculture)

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35
Q

What declines in the fossil record when grassland is established?

A

elm (pollen)

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36
Q

What are the hypothesised reasons for elm decline?

A
  • disease?
  • climate change?
  • trees pollarded to provide winter feed for livestock
  • areas of diseased trees easier to clear for farming

still debated, but likely a combination of human impacts on the landscape and disease

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37
Q

In the moors west of sheffield, there are … peaks of … pollen between the elm decline and the iron age (500BC) - suggests…

A

5, Plantago,
5 clearance phases, progressively larger and longer
- ‘landnam’ clearances

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38
Q

It is thought that Neolithic farmers took advantage of of … … …. They would clear land at the edges of … …. Humans also removed large …, exacerbating the cycles. There was an interaction between plant communities, large herbivores and humans.

A

natural vera cycles, dying woodlands, predators

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39
Q

Grasslands are…

A

dominated by grasses

- subject to natural or artificial grazing - results in the partial defoliation of plants

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40
Q

Graminoids are..

A

grasses, rushes and sedges

- “grassy things”

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41
Q

What are grassland plant adaptations?

A
  • Intercalary meristem
  • spread by rhizomes
  • adpressed growth
  • low palatability
  • ephemeral life history
42
Q

intercalary meristem is only present in..

A

graminoids and horsetails

- meristem present at the base of each leaf - grazed plants can easily regrow from basal meristem

43
Q

Rhizomes…

A
  • rootstalks provide new nodes for growth - grazed plants can spread without flowers
44
Q

Adpressed growth…

A
  • negatively-phototropic rosettes - leaves tightly adpressed to the ground - not easily grazed
45
Q

Examples of low palatability include…

A

spines, woody tissues, distastefulness and toxins

46
Q

Ephemeral plants…

A

exploit bare patches of soil and grow during periods of limited grazing

47
Q

What are the 2 grassland types in the uk defined by?

A

soil pH - acidic and alkaline grassland

48
Q

Calcifuge species grow in…

A

acidic soils

49
Q

Calcicole species grow in..

A

calcareous (alkaline) soils

50
Q

Why does pH have such a large impact on plant growth?

A

Influences availability of ions - some can be toxic, whilst others are crucial to healthy plant growth

51
Q

Most of the peak district grasslands, including the derbyshire dales, are based on..

A

limestone (calcareous, and therefore alkaline, soils)

52
Q

Limestone grassland is often very species..

A

rich

53
Q

The characteristic soil of limestone grassland is called..

A

rendzina

  • no subsoil, just surface soil, substrate, then bedrock
  • tends to mean rendzina soil is very shallow, and often bleeding of bedrock into upper layers of soil
  • low fertility
54
Q

The ‘thin-ness’ of the soil is particularly due to the…

A

purity of the bedrock - pure limestone provides very little insoluble residue on dissolution - little material to contribute to the development of a deep soil profile

55
Q

The shape of the land formed through the rock is called the…

A

toposequence

56
Q

Biodiverse limestone grasslands tend to form on…

A

slopes, rather than plateaus and valley bottoms

57
Q

Plateaus have…

A

more acidic podzol soils (pH < 5) and very low fertility (<10 species/m2

58
Q

Slopes have…

A

rendzina soils (pH >7) and low fertility but high species richness (20 species/m2)

59
Q

Valley bottoms have…

A

alluvial soils (pH 5.5-7.5) and medium fertility, and (5-15 species/m2)

60
Q

Globally, heathland and moorland is very…

A

rare

61
Q

Heathland refers to a physiognomically-distict type of vegetation, dominated by…

A

ericoid dwarf shrubs

62
Q

Ericoid =

A

Ericaceae and related families = heathers

- normally dominated by C. vulgaris

63
Q

Heathland in the UK has low … … but high … …

A

floristic diversity,

conservation status

64
Q

Heathland has low … status and … soil

A

nutrient, acidic

65
Q

Upland heaths are known as…

A

moors

66
Q

What are the characteristics of upland heaths?

A
  • ~300-400m above sea level
  • up to montane zone (the tree-line)
  • 2 to 3 million hectares in the UK
  • 75% of entire world’s total
67
Q

What are the characteristics of lowland heaths?

A
  • 58,000 ha in UK
  • 20% of world’s total
  • altitudes less than 300m above sea level
68
Q

Heathlands typically occur on … … soils

A

acidic podzol

69
Q

Podzol soils are typical of…

A

boreal forests and heathland

70
Q

What are the characteristics of podzol soil?

A
  • acidic (pH < 5.5)
  • little mixing of mineral and organic matter by organisms
  • not much cycling of nutrients
  • sharp boundaries between distinct horizons
  • intense eluviation of surface horizons (nutrients and bases leached from upper horizons
  • much deeper soil than rendzina soils (+ deep organic (peat) layer)
  • iron pan prevents drainage
71
Q

Peatlands are the largest…

A

carbon reserve in the uk

  • 3 billion tonnes C
  • more C stored in UK peat than forests of Britain and France combined
  • peat degradation is a climate change risk
72
Q

Podzolisation may have occured in response to…

A

forest clearance and cultivation

- so not really a fully natural habitat

73
Q

Most moorlands don’t exist without some form of…

A

management

74
Q

Red grouse is … to the UK

A

endemic - high conservation status and economic value

  • eats heather
  • grouse shooting popular sport
75
Q

Grouse shooting is worth about … per year to the UK economy

A

£100 million

76
Q

Grouse are completely reliant on…

A

young shoots of heather

77
Q

How is heathland managed for grouse shooting?

A

rotational burning used on an 8-15 year cycle

  • maximises the amount of edible biomass
  • provides patches of more mature heather for nesting
78
Q

Prescribed burning…

A

removes the top layer of heather

  • done in winter
  • controlled areas
  • avoids burning the peat underneath
79
Q

What are the advantages of burning moorland?

A
  • Management to avoid succession
  • ash provides nutrients to soil
  • nutrients also return to soil via precipitation
  • can increase plant diversity
  • can increase insect diversity in the long term
80
Q

What are the disadvantages of burning moorland?

A
  • even careful burning can cause loss of peat
  • burning increases soil temperature for up to 7 years
  • burning reduces insect populations initially
  • burning reduces water table in burned areas
  • burning reduces plant health and nutrients
  • substantial loss of some nutrients in the smoke, especially nitrogen (N)
81
Q

Wildfires burn …, happen in … weather, and can be uncontrolled and burn through underlying …

A

deeper, hot, peat

  • climate change –> hotter summers –> more fires
82
Q

What are the two types of wetland in the UK?

A
  • Aquatic wetlands - shallow water ecosystems

- Telmatic wetlands - wet terrestrial ecosystems

83
Q

Telmatic wetlands can be…

A

permanent wetlands or seasonal wetlands

84
Q

Permanent telmatic wetlands can be classed as…

A
  • Bog - fed by rainfall only, acidic
  • Swamp - flooded for most of the year, supports graminoids
  • Fen - fed by groundwater and rainfall, base-rich
85
Q

Seasonal wetlands tend to be called…

A

Marshes - dry for part of the year, can support meadow and pasture

86
Q

Telmatic wetlands all have … in them

A

peat - organic plant material at varying stages of decomposition

87
Q

Succession is…

A

a gradual, directional change in the composition of vegetation
populations of different plant species successively replace one another
usually accompanied by environmental change

88
Q

Allogenic means…

A

succession is driven by environmental change

89
Q

Autogenic means…

A

succesion when the vegetation itself induces environmental change - vegetation creates conditions conducive to its own replacement

90
Q

Primary succession occurs…

A

on surfaces that have not previously supported vegetation, e.g. bedrock exposed by erosion, newly created pools, lava flows

91
Q

secondary succession occurs..

A

on surfaces that have previously supported soil and vegetation, e.g. recolonisation of set-aside farmland

92
Q

Wetland succession (peat accumulation) occurs in two ways. What are they?

A
  • Terrestrialisation - infilling of lakes and pools with mud and peat
  • Paludification - the process by which ‘dry’ land gets wetter - caused by impeded drainage or increased precipitation - responsible for the largest areas of wetland in Britain
93
Q

What are the two types of terrestrialisation?

A
  • Rooting (normal) terrestrialisation - water gradually shallows by the accumulation of mud and peat - allows progressive colonisation by species more suited to shallow-water conditions
  • rafting terrestrialisation - open water becomes overgrown directly by a buoyant mat of peat - reduces the dependency of the succession on shallowing caused by the accumulation of mud and peat
94
Q

What plant is often the first to colonise wetlands (especially in the UK)?

A

Sphagnum moss

- most of our peat made from sphagnum

95
Q

When does a raised bog form?

A

When acidic ombrotrophic peat accumulated above the level of the fen water table - usually up to five metres high in the centre

96
Q

What type of bog is most often formed by paludification?

A

blanket bog - normal terrestrialisation in a bog but vegetation starts to spread further and further away from the original open water source - need significant amount of rainfall for this to occur (200+ days of rainfall per year and/or high humidity)

97
Q

ombrogenous formation means…

A

rain-fed

98
Q

It is now considered that much blanket bog was initiated by…

A

forest clearance (as tree removal increases water table)

99
Q

What are some plant adaptations to the waterlogged and oxygen-deficient wetland environments?

A
  • Anaerobic respiration in roots (produce less toxic malic acid rather than ethanol), transport of oxygen to roots (high root porosity), release of oxygen into the rhizosphere (soil around roots)
100
Q

In bogs, decomposition is …, meaning bodies can be incredibly well-preserved (known as … …, e.g. the tollund and lindow men)

A

retarded, bog bodies

101
Q

Dead stems of reed in winter may have an important function as…

A

snorkels

- cutting dead stems below water level in winter can cause plants to ‘drown’ and sometimes die

102
Q

Oxygen release by plants with high rates of … … … can sometimes oxidise the soil sufficiently well to permit the growth of others

A

radial oxygen loss

Zoology Semester 2 (15 decks)

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