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Semester 2 Exams > APS 123 Macro Ecology (and Dave Edwards) > Flashcards

APS 123 Macro Ecology (and Dave Edwards) Flashcards

1
Q

Three uses of palm oil

A

Food
Pharmaceuticals
Biofuels

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2
Q

Between 1999 and 2008 there has been a ____ increase in area used for palm oil, this equates to _____ Mha of expansion

A

56%

5.5Mha

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3
Q

Where is deforestation for palm oil occurring most and where has recent reduction in deforestation for palm oil occurred

A

Most rapid in south east asia

Brazil reducing its rates of deforestation

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4
Q

What are the two main targets for palm oil plantations?

A

Primary

Selectivly logged woodland

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5
Q

Why does oil palm cause a net release of carbon?

A

For starters they will burn the site to clear current forest
- then the intake is 163 tonnes per hectare less in dipterocarp flrest and 1450 tonnes per hecatre less in swamp land

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6
Q

Other than carbon release what is an effect of burning forests for oil palm

A

Air quailty - places like shanghai get smoke from burning trees in south east asia
Caused premature deaths of 100,000

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7
Q

How long would it take to recoup the carbon released from:
Dipterocarp forest
Peat swamp forest

A

Dipterocarp - 75-90 years

Peat swamp - 600 years

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8
Q

What are industries arguments against palm oil causing a loss in biodiveristy?

A

Oil palm creates a greater variety in ground veg

Benefit to orangutans since they can feed on vitamnin A and E rich palm fruit

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9
Q

Define functional diversity

A

Quantifying the range and abundance of functional roles played by specie within a community

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10
Q

What is functional richness?

A

The volume of functional trait space occupied by a set of species

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11
Q

With higher levels of _______ or ________, ecosystems ______ are better protected

A

Functional diverosty or richness

Ecosystem services

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12
Q

With an oil palm plantation in place what were the reductoins in dung bettle and bird populations as compared with natural woodland

A

90% in birds

98% in dung bettles

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13
Q

What is the effect of retaining forested land on palm oil production?

A

Could bring in benefits and negatives
- beneficial biodiveristy e.g. Pest controllers
Negative biodiversity - e.g. Pests
Overall neutral effect

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14
Q

Define species climate niche

A

The specifc range of climatic requriements that enables a species fo survive and reproduce

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15
Q

What are four methods used in ecology to gain information on where organisms live

A

Museum
Enthusiasts
Previous data sets
Fieldwork

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16
Q

How do you create a bioclimate enevelope model?

A

Obtain Records of location
Map current distribution
Overlay maps of environment features e.g. Topography soil rainfall and temp
Cross reference the two maps

Predict a species distribution from environmental requirements
- start a model to predict where they can exist

Use future predictions to see where they will likely move

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17
Q

Describe the effects increased temperatures are having on corn, gove two methods to counter this effect

A

100-160% increase in growing days with temperatures above 29 degrees corn cant grow in these conditons
- need to develop heat tolerant strains or move crops further north

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18
Q

Why will climate change increase the frequency of vector bourne diseaes in north Europe?

A

Climactic niche changes for vectors e.g. Mosquito who can now move further north
- as they move north can bring viruses with them

E.g. West nile virus in italy

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19
Q

What % of a population of austrlian flying foxes died within one day of extreme heat exposure?

A

10%

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20
Q

By 2050 it is predicted that between _________ of species will be committed to extinction

A

15-37%

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21
Q

What three ways could animals manage changes in temperatures?

A

Have an inbuilt behaviour plasticity
Have in built thermal tolerances
Survive by heritable genetic changes- would this be fast enough?

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22
Q

Where do organisms have broader thermal tolerances?

A

More varied climates have broader physiology limits

- tropics non varied since more stable

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23
Q

High or low thermal tolerances in mammals and birds?

A

High in birds

Low in Mammals

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24
Q

Define phenology

A

The timing of seasonal activities of animals and plants

E.g. Migrant arrival and breeding

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25
Q

What are some benefits to organisms from climate change?

A

Exploit favourbale conditions earlier in the year

Earlier acsess to nest sites = more breeding attempts

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26
Q

What effect is climate change having on phenotype synchrony?

A

Temporal mismatch between food and prey

E.g. Winter moths hatching earlier with increasing temperatures but oak trees not budding earlier

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27
Q

A study on UK butterflies movement with climate change saw what percentage of them moving how far?

A

65% shifted northwards by 35-240Km

35 non migratory species studied

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28
Q

In a study on moths on a tropical mountain how many species moved upwards in altitude and what was the average movement

A

102 species upwards

Average 67 meters

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29
Q

Give three reasons why observed habitat shifts due to climate change don’t meet expected changes

A

Cant move as fast as predictions
Scale too coarse - 1x1Km grid cells - species at smaller scales
Microhabitat buffering

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30
Q

Give some examples of microhabitats

A

Epiphytic ferns, phytotelmata, ground vegetation

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31
Q

Experiment done to see difference between ambient and microhabitats what was found?

A

Frogs have 2-9 degree extra tolerance within microhabitats

For every one extreme temperature hour within an epiphytic fern there were 31 outside

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32
Q

By moving down from canopy to ground there is a _______ temperture change this is equivalent to moving ______ up a mountain

A

2 degree

400 meters up

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33
Q

By moving from canopy to floor there is an 11% change in moisture gradients this is equivalent to what increase in altitude?

A

2200

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34
Q

In tropical frogs there is less _________ with decreasing _________

A

Less arboreiality with decreasing elevation

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35
Q

define alpha diversity

A

number of species - essentially species richness

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36
Q

define gamma diversity

A

diveristy across mulitple sites

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37
Q

define beta diversity

A

the differnces in turnover of species

38
Q

how do you measure beta diversity

A

using the jaccard coefficeint
a= number of species on both sites
b = number of species on site 1 but not site 2
c = number of species on site 2 but not site 1

jaccard = a/a+b+c

where jaccard = 0 the two sites are totally different
= 1 and they totally identical

39
Q

what is meant by habitats being nested?

A

one larger habitat contains at least all the same species as another smaller one. hence the smaller is nested within the larger

40
Q

describe a species area relationship

A

islands with larger area will have more species, because there will be more different niches
not a linear relationship since it levels off at the end

41
Q

what is the non logged form of the species area relationship equation

A

S=cA^z

s= number of species 
A = area 
c = intercept 
z = expopnent
42
Q

show the logged form of the species area relationship equation, why is this needed?

A

log(s) = log(c) + zlog(A)

needed to form a straight line

43
Q

name the very small ‘island’ habitat in arctic environments formed by dust particles

A

cryoconite holes

44
Q

how consistent is the species area relationship - give vaues

A

pretty consistent

  • gradient usually between 0.25 and 0.4
  • meaning a double in species with a 10 fold increase in area
45
Q

describe the study of mountain top juniper and coniferous forests. why is species area important here?

A

juniper at mid altitude
coniferous at top

3 degree increase in temperture - confierous cant grow

  • juniper moves up the slope to cope
  • less area at the top of the slope hence species richness declines
46
Q

on mainland areas the main threat to biodiversity is habitat loss, but on islands it is..

A

species invasion and disease

47
Q

why is there a shallower curve curve on mainland islands than real islands species area relationship

A

far less movement between geogrpahic islands as compared with other ‘isalnds’

48
Q

what is meant by island saturation, what is the relationship between this and island distance? what is this known as

A

a fully saturated island would have 100% of the species found on the mainland

  • as you move further from the mainland island saturation decreases

known as the species isolation relationship

49
Q

species richness on an island is a balance between _____ and _____

A

immigration and extinction

50
Q

describe how you can find the equilibirum point of an islands species richness - what happens at this equilibirum?

A

plot immigration and extinctionn

  • immigration declines with increasing number of species
  • extinction increses with increasing number of species

where the two lines intersect is the equilibirum - type of species may vary as extinction and immigration continue but they occur at the same rate hence overall number of species remains the same

51
Q

why is extinction lower on nearby islands?

A

because there is a continual restocking of individuals from the mainland

52
Q

why is immigration greater on nearby islands?

A

because less distance for immigrants to travel

53
Q

why do area and distance of islands have effects on each other?

A

larger island is a bigger target for immigrants hence more can get there
it also can hold a larger population hence buffers against extinction

54
Q

immigration ___ with area
immigration ___ with isolation
extinction ____ with area
extinction ____ with isolation

A

increase
decrease
decrease
increase

55
Q

why is there no clear differnces between the richness on the channel islands around california

A

not far enough away from the mainland to see changes in species isolation relationships

56
Q

was there evidence of an equilibirum in the californian channel islands?

A

yes, turnover between extinction and immigration

- except santa rosa 1 extinction for 12 immigrations

57
Q

why may an island not be in equilibirum?

A

extinction and immigration vary a lot between species

58
Q

what does the species area and species isolation relationship assume?

A

no speciation occurs on the islands

59
Q

what species of lizard shows a repeated pattern of evolution on islands? how many morphs are there?

A

6 eco morphs of anols have evolved on each island seperately

60
Q

what is odd about the species area relationship of anols ? what is causing this?

A

very small populations at first, then sudden huge increases, caused by speciation

61
Q

who was first to notice the specis richness latitudinal gradient?

A

alexander von humbolt

62
Q

what two groups can hypotheses regarding the species area relationship be put into?

A

ecological - climactic factors

evolution - historical factors

63
Q

what are the main ecologcial explanation for the latitudinal diversity gradient

A

more energy at the tropics and hence greater abundance of resources

increased habitat heterogeneity = greater variety within a habitat nearer the tropics

64
Q

how does an increase in avaiable energy effect ecto and endo therms?

A

ectotherms - get extra warmth so can obtain more resources

endotherms - need to expend less energy on keeping warm so can be spent elsewhere

65
Q

the latitudinal diversity gradient is a very general trend give an exception to the rule

A

cycads

66
Q

what measure is used as a proxy for energy when looking at Latitudinal diversity gradients?

A

potential evapotranspiration

67
Q

describe an experiment on habitat heterogenity using fir trees and spiders

A

manipulated a fir tree to have less different habitats on it
- more spiders on trees with more habitats

68
Q

what are the three evolutionary hypothesies to explain the latitudinal diveristy gradient

A

tropical cascade - lots of speciation
tropical museum of diveristy - low extinction
out of the tropics - species move out of the tropics lots of speciation and very low extinction

69
Q

if the tropical cradles hypothesis is true then _____ will vary with latitude but ______ wont . The reverse is true for the _____________ hypothesis

A

speciation varies - peaks on tropics
extinction rates

reverse true for tropical museums

70
Q

if the out of the tropics model is true then ______ should peak in the tropics and ______ should decline

A

speciation should peak

extinction rate declines

71
Q

what evidence supports the the out of the tropics model as an explanation for the LDG

A

phylogenetic evidence shows that speciation rates higher in the tropics whilst extinction rates lower
- also shows a net transition out of the tropics

72
Q

what evidence suggests that causes of the LDG differ dependant on species

A

phylogenetic evidence on marine mamals suggests that speciation occurs more out of the tropics

73
Q

what is bergmanns rule?

A

body size increases with higher lattitudes - i.e. where it gets colder

74
Q

what explains bergmans rule?

A

explained to the greatest extent by temperture

75
Q

in species rich areas you are likely to find more ______ bodied individuals

A

small

76
Q

what three factors is bergmanns rule driven by?

A

thermoregulation
taxonomic turnover
community assembly

77
Q

what is allens rule

A

species with longer appendages in closely related vertebrate increase in hotter environments

78
Q

when you look at cumulative species protected by reserves does a large or a small reserve accumulate more species

A

many small

79
Q

what percentage of global land is protected?

A

11.5%

80
Q

where are reseves often found? why?

A

poor soil
high elevation
because this is the least economicaly valuable land

81
Q

___ global hotspots cover _% of the worlds surface. encompassing over __% of plant species and ___% of vertebrates

A

34
2.3
50
42

82
Q

is the hotspot method of choosing reserves better or worse than random selection? Why?

A

worse
worse because:
- hotspots dont account for species turnover and are clustered together

83
Q

which approach is better than both the hotspot and random approach in reserve design?

A

complementary approach

84
Q

other than size or reserve give other factors effecting how protective a reserve would be

A

proximity to one and other
bufferzones
shape
connectedness

85
Q

why is single large reserve better than small reserves when looking only at edge area ratios?

A

edge area ratio higher in a small reserve (as well as elongated)
species respond differently in the edge and the core
minimising the edge if disireable as it reduces fragmentation and protects more core habitat

86
Q

what is a major assumption regarding persitence of a species in reserves that is inccorect?

A

that presence equals persistence

87
Q

if you can support 70-90 bears the population has a ___% chance of survival but if your population is 100 then chance of survival is ___%

A

95

99

88
Q

what is the most important thing to question when looking at small reserve sizes and their chance of disturbance?

A

wether not the sites are independant i.e. wether a wild fire in one site increases the chance of a wild fire in another site

89
Q

when can several small sites be more persistent over disater?

A

where they can disperse between sites

- i.e. if one sites burnt in a wild fire it could be restocked by another small reserve

90
Q

what is the ideal distance between small reserves?

A

far apart enough to be independant but close enough to allow dispersal

Semester 2 Exams (10 decks)

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