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Semester 2 Exams > Animal Physiology > Flashcards

Animal Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

what is the difference between acclimatization and acclimation

A

acclimation is from an experimental climate change where as

acclimatiation is from a natural response

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2
Q

define plasticity

A

ability of living organisms to change their state in response to stimuli occurs at many levels from molecular to behavioural

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3
Q

at high altitude there is ____ barometeric pressure and ___ atmospheric oxygen

A

low

low

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4
Q

how many binding sites does haemoglobin have?

A

16

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5
Q

most people have between ____ and ___ % saturation in their red blood cells

A

96 and 100%

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6
Q

in the lungs hameoglobin has _____ affinty for oxygen because the oxygen saturation is very _____

A

high

high

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7
Q

what is the effect of altitude on oxygen saturation in the red blood cells? what does this lead to ?

A

partial pressure lower, haemoglobin has a lesser affinity for oxygen

leads to hypoxia - breathless and fatigued - body tries to reduce oxygen usage and increase oxygen intake

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8
Q

describe the andean and tibetan populations inn terms of altitude and time lived thert

A

andeans 4000 meters for 13,000 years

tibetans 4000 meters for 25,000 years

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9
Q

what three questions do we ask about the tibetan vs andean populations at altitude

A

same physiological adaptations?
are these heritable?
does the response influence fitness?

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10
Q

what is erythrocytosis?

A

an increase in the amount of red blood cells

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11
Q

in which population (tibetan or andean) saw erthocytosis?

A

Andeans had a higher concentration of haemoglobin at high altitude than low altitude

no difference in the tibetan populations

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12
Q

at high altitudes the populations had lower _____

A

oxygen saturation

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13
Q

the tibetans dont have more hameoglobin so what do they do to tackle their high altitude living? what advantage is there to this?

A

much higher respiration rate

- more nitric oxide - causes vascodialation which enbales the arteries to carry more oxygen

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14
Q

what is a disadvantage to the higher {Hb} in the tibetans?

A

more viscous blood and hencce a strained heart

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15
Q

Is high [Hb] heritable?

A

high heritbility in both populations

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16
Q

is oxygen saturation heritable?

A

NOT IN ANDEAN

heritable in tibetan

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17
Q

what type of gene for oxygen saturation?

A

dominant autosomal

- confers 5-6 oxygen saturation

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18
Q 
give the values that:
- temperture 
blood sugar 
pH 
water 
oxygen levels 
should be maintained at
A

37.5 degrees
0.1% blood sugar
pH 7.4
salt solute levels
96-99%

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19
Q

feedback systems start with a ____ which are monitored by a ___ then fed to a ________ which sends an impulse to the _____ which will alter the ______

A 
stimulus 
receptor
control centre 
effector
stimulus
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20
Q

which part of the brain maintains temperture?

A

hypothalamus

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21
Q

give an example of a positive feedback loop in mammals

A

oxytocin stimulates contractionns
contractions stimulate oxytocin release

needs a control stimulus to stop release = giving birth

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22
Q

humming birds body temperture is 38-40 degrees in the day and 18-20 at night they acheive this by?

A

going into a state of torpor - a slowing down

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23
Q

in torpor body temp maps onto ______ temp. in humming bird torpor heart rate went from ___ to ___

A

600 to 50

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24
Q

when hibernating heart beat becomes _______ and ______

A

irregular and slows down

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25
Q

describe the use of EPO - erythropoietin

A

blood oxygen falls kidney detects it and releases EPO

stimulates red bone marrow to release RBCs which will increase the oxygen saturation

produced naturally at high altitude (heavy excerises and when haemoraging)

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26
Q

what does EPO increase the risk of?

A

heart attacks and strokes since blood thickens therefroe heart must work harder

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27
Q

if EPO is naturally occuring then how is it noticed in doping tests?

A

frequent testing works out the baseline levels - test before competition to see if there is a spike

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28
Q

what does meldonium do?

what is it used to treat?

A

increases blood flow
increases flow of oxygen

used to treat coronory heart disease

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29
Q

because they experince _______ larger animals tend to be slower moving

A

greater gravitational forces

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30
Q

what is allometry

A

study of differenital growth - how parts of the body scale with body size

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31
Q

three types of allometry

A

ontogenic allometry - body proportions change during growth
static - body proportions differ between individuals of same sex abd age within a species
isometric - body proportions stay the same

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32
Q

what is the equation that demonstrates the allometric relationoship

A

y=ax^b

y=size of body part
x = measure of whole body size
a = an intial growth index
b = scaling exponent

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33
Q

for different values of b (scaling exponent) describe how body parts grow in relation to body size

A

b=0 is no relationship
b=1 part proportional to size
b<1 body part slower than body growth
b>1 body part grows faster than body growth

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34
Q

in male stag bettles mandibles growth is _________ , but is _______ in females

A

positive allometry males

isomeric in females

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35
Q

why is isometery not common

A

small animal can maintain its weight on a small limb

body grows volume increase more rapidly than surface area

mass increases more rapidly - square cube law

if growth doubles in isometry
- mass increases by 8 times a with only a 4 fold increase in surface area to support it

equally 8 times more respiring tissue with 4 times greater surface area for respiration to occur across

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36
Q

endotherms have a ______ metabolic rate than eectotherms

A

higher

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37
Q

metabolic rare =?

A

body weight ^0.75

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38
Q

mass specific metabolic rate =

A

metabolic rate /weight =weight^0.25

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39
Q

give the proportional heat lsot from each of the heat exchange processes

A

radiation - 60%
conduction - 3%
convection -15%

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40
Q

three methods of minimsing heat loss

A

reduce SA:v
alter temp gradient
insulation

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41
Q

describe a behaviour used by the bullfrog to reduce convection

A

covers itself in mucus

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42
Q

pros and cons of ectotherms

A

5 x slower metabolic rate
less water
larger proportion of energy to reporoduction
good colonisers

but
cant be nocturnal
cannot sustain high activity
cant live in colder environments

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43
Q

what is the thermal neutral zone?

A

range of temps where no energy is needed to maintain body temperutres
- upper and lower crictical limit

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44
Q

how does vascoconstriction effect regulation of body temperture

A 
decreased diameter of blood vessels 
blood flow to skin decreases 
skin cools 
less heat lost 
heat trapped in body core 
reduces conduction and convection
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45
Q

how does shrivering increase temperture

A

uses ATP to cause body movements and therfore increases heat

46
Q

adrenalines role in heat exchange

A

released from adrenal medulla increases heart rate to increase heat

47
Q

thyroxine role in heat exchange

A

released from thyroid gland increases basal metabolic rate

48
Q

why does brown fat increase ability to insulate ones self? where is it most common

A

brown fat rich in mitochondria - break down fuel into energy

found in new borns and hibernating mammals

49
Q

describe countercurrent heat exchange

A

blood in hot artery flows by colder veins and exchanges heat. cold blood does not return to the heart

50
Q

what is another name for ectotherms

A

poikilotherms

51
Q

another name for endotherms

A

homeotherms

52
Q

what is blubber

A

thick layer of vascularized adipose tissue under the skin of sea mammals

53
Q

gular fluttering

A

rapidly flap membrane in the throat to increase evaporation

54
Q

urohydrosis

A

deficate on legs for evaporative cooling

55
Q

hypothermia

A

too cold

56
Q

hyperthermia

A

too hot

57
Q

which hormone triggers sweating

A

adrenaline

58
Q

where can the hypothalamus send messages to about increasing temp

A 
smooth arteriole 
sweat glands 
arrector pili muscle in skin
skeletal muscles 
adrenal and thyroid glands
59
Q

four factors that effect diffusion

A

temperture
particle size
electrical charge
concentration gradient

60
Q

define osmolarity

A

measure of osmotic pressure exerted by a solution across a perfect semi permable membrane = number particles divided by the number of molecules x concentrations

61
Q

define tonicity

A

effect of a solution on a cell volume

62
Q

what is an osmoregulate

A

kepp internal osmolarity of boyd fluids with differing environmental osmolrity

63
Q

what is an osmoconformer

A

internal body fluids match the external envirnoments

64
Q

the marine teleost is ______ to the environment. which means it…

A

hypoosmotic

loses water to the environment

65
Q

the marine teleost takes in large amounts of water and thus brings in lots of salt how does it tackle this?

A

active transport of salt out of the cells
- many Na/K pumps on basolateral surface of gill membrane - huge sodium gradient in chloride cell
- cl- transported using Na+
gradient - (cl-/Na+)
- cl- builds up and diffuses out
- na+ follows Cl- charge by smeaking through leaky tight cell junctions

also only excretes small amounts of concentrated urine

66
Q

the freshwater teleost is ______ to the environment

A

hyperosmotic

67
Q

freshwater teleosts are hyperosmotic to their environment which means they lose large amounts of salts how do they tackle this

A

active tack up of salts through gills
at apical surface ATP used to bring in chlroide and sodium (symporters pump chloride into the intra cellular tissue)
- Na+ follows chlorine gradient into the body
- very tight , tight junctions hence no ion leak

68
Q

what is formed by breakdown of proteins and nucleic acids?

A

toxic ammonia which raises the pH of body fluids

- disrupts homeostasis and key enzymes

69
Q

three methods of removing nitrogenous wastes and whuch organisms use them

A

ammonia - aquatic organisms
urea - mammals
uric acid - birds and reptiles

70
Q

describe waste removed as ammonia

A

bony fishes and aquatic amphibains
- very little energy needed
small molecule hence rapid diffusion
- but very toxic therefore cant build up

71
Q

urea as a waste remover

A

mammals amphibians and cartilagnous fishes
1000x less toxic than ammnoia
- requires less water

but requires 1.5ATP used to convert every 1 ammonia to urea

72
Q

uric acid as a waste remover

A

birds insects reptiles
completely insoulable so has no effect on water potential
- nor pH
- less toxic than urea
- excreted as semi solid - good for water conservation

but requires 3 times more energy to produce than urea

73
Q

in what types of organism is uric acid especially useful?

A

egg layers

- urea would build up to toxic concnetrations inside impermeable egg

74
Q

describe waste removal in frog life history

A

excrete ammonia as tadpoles

become frogs and excrete urea since water acsess has decreased

75
Q

how do protazoa deal with nitrogenous waste?

A

expel water into the environment with it comes nitrogneous wastes

76
Q

describe waste removal in the lung fish at two points ini its life history

A

aquatic - pond dry out it covers itself in mucus cocoon.

excretes urea in dry phase but ammonia when in water

77
Q

what organ is used by annelids and moluscs to remove waste

A

the nephridia

78
Q

insects use the _________ for waste removal

A

malpighian tubule

79
Q

why do insects secrete waste as uric acid

A

to conserve water

80
Q

describe malpighian tubules

A

blinf ended
one cell thick
between midgut and hindgut
float in haemolymph

81
Q

how does the malpighian tubule work?

A

salt water and nitrogenous wastws are actiely transported into the tubules
net movement of water into tubules
products move into the gut and out of the rectum

82
Q

kidney recieves _____ % of bodies cardiac output

A

20-25%

83
Q

what are the four stages of waste removal in the kidney

A

filtration
reabsorbtion
secretion
excretion of filtrate

84
Q

where does ultrafiltratuion occur?

A

renal cortex

85
Q

what is the role of the renal medulla

A

regulates water and salt in blood

86
Q

describe the process of ultrafiltration

A

blood pressure in glomerulus forcecs fluid into the lumen of bowmans capsule
fluid contains small solutes
non selective filtration

87
Q

what occurs in the proximal tubule

A

water and salt reabsorbed from gromelular filtrate

88
Q

what happens in the decending loop og henle

A

water leaves filtrate

89
Q

what happens in the accednding loop of henle

A

salt leaves filtrate

- it is impermable to water

90
Q

what happens in the distal tubule

A

regulates salt concentrations
regulates pH
water balance

91
Q

describe the countercurrent muliplier system in the kidney

A

osmotic gradinent down loop of henle

  • fluid in descending limb flowing in the opposite way to the ascending limb
  • fluid in tubule in desending limb flows in opposite direction acending limb
92
Q

describe the homestatic control of nephron permability

A

increased osmolarity of extra cellular fluids

  • osmoreceptors
  • hypothalamus
  • vasopressin and andtidiuretic hormone is released
  • which increases water permeability of the distal tubule and collecting duct
93
Q

what are the two strategies to living in extreme tempertures?

A

tolerate

avoid damage

94
Q

how do heat shock proteins work?

A

promote proper refolding of proteins that have been denatured
prevent damage interactions with proteins
aid in disassembally or formation of proteins aggregates

95
Q

heat shock proteins are themselves proteins, how do they not denature

A

stronger H bonds
more h bonds
better able to hold primary structure
harder to denature

96
Q

how are heat shock porteins used by the immune system ?

A

cell breaks found in extra cellular fluid and body knows something is up

97
Q

what is supercooling

A

water requires a nucleate to freeze
remove any ice nucleating agents
no nucleating agents ice can be cooled to -42 degrees without freezing

98
Q

describe cryoprotectant synthesis

A

alternation of biochemistry
increased solute concentration so decreased freeezing point
most common = glycerol which reduces the amount of ice formed outside of the ccell - stops water molecuels leaving

99
Q

supercooling and cryoprotectants are examples of _____ and occur more in the ______

A

freeze avoidance

occur more in northern hemisphere

100
Q

three methods of freeze tolerance

A

limit supercooling by initiating the freezing of body fluids - control where ice is formed

produce ice structuring proteins - antifreeze, change strutuer fo ice bind to small crystals to stop them growing any larger

ice nucleating proteins - avoids sudden freezing

101
Q

how does the arctic wolly bear mpth tolerate -70 tempertures in annual diapause

A

accumulates glycerol and betanine in late arctic summer

formulates hibernaculum to elimainate nucleators

102
Q

how does the snow flea dela with extreme cold

A

synthesises an antifreeze protein - rich in glyceine

- used for storage or donor organs in medical setting

103
Q

rate of diffusion =

A

(differnce in partial pressure x surface area x temperature x solubility) / distance x sqrt of molecuar weight

104
Q

insects use tidal ______. what is this?

A

ventilation

gases exit and enter the same way

105
Q

fetal haemoglobin has a _____ affintiy to oxygen

A

higher

106
Q

describe the inhilatinos and exhilations of a bird

A

first inhilation moves air through trachea into prosterior sacs which expand

exhale and move air into lungs

inhale air from lungs to anterior sacs

exhale again and ir goes into trachea and back out of the body - flow is unidirectional

107
Q

why do birds need their adaptaions to breathing?

A

altitude and flight

  • lower oxygen partial pressures
  • lungs small for boy size - high metabolic demands
108
Q

intercostal muscles ___ as well as diaphragm cauysing pressure to _____ and air moves in

A

contract

decrease

109
Q

what is the residual volume

A

the air left in the lungs after exhilation

110
Q

marine mammals can store oxygen in the _______

A

muscles

111
Q

how is the level of CO2 maintained in animals

A

CO2 level rises
sends message to chemorecptors
then to medulla
increased breathing rate which lowers CO2

112
Q

currently ____ of brid species are experiencing higher temps than their max which is predicited to rise to ___ by 2080
for mammals this is _____ to _____

A

15%
36%
16%
47%

Semester 2 Exams (10 decks)

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