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Semester 2 Exams > Animal R+D+G > Flashcards

Animal R+D+G Flashcards

1
Q

define sex

A

the fusion of genetic material from two different parents

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2
Q

pros of asexual reproduction

A

higher rate of offspring per organism

no energetic costs

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3
Q

cons of asexual reproduction

A

transmits mutations and no genetic variation

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4
Q

4 methods of asexual reproduction

A

fragmentation - break body bits and regrow lost parts
binary fission - divide into two creating daughter cells
budding - offspirng grows from parental body cells
parthenogenesis - virgin birth,

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5
Q

in stressful conditions _______ is favoured over ______ reproduction because in stress ________ is needed

A

sexual reproduction
asexual reproduction
genetic diversity

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6
Q

how old is sexual reproduction

A

1.5 -2 billion

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7
Q

3 stages to sexual reproduction

A

gametogenesis
mating
fertilisation

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8
Q

both ______ and _____ are highly conserved but ______- has huge variety

A

gametogenesis
fertilisation
mating

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9
Q

describe external mating

A

stuck in the same spot e.g. giant clam - cast sperm into environment, more mobile species will put sperm as close as possible to the female

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10
Q

_______ is essential for external ferilisation

A

water

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11
Q

what are the limits to external fertilisation?

A

cant control the delivery
huge number of gametes required
high energetic cost

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12
Q

internal fertilisation can be _______ or _______

A

indirect or direct

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13
Q

describe the mating strategy of the Sminthurus virdis

A

a neat spermatophore made from males testes - stalk with spermatophore on top

no courtship ritual

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14
Q

desccribe the mating strategy of the Allacma gallica

A

male deposits several spermatophores

  • pushes female towards them - increasing likelyhood that a female accepts the spermatohore
  • males eat the spermatophore of others males to increase paternity
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15
Q

direct transfer of sperm requires an __________ organ

A

intromittent

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16
Q

describe sexual dimorphism in the blanket octopus

A

females are up to 2 meters
males are 1mm

males fill sperm n an arm like organ mating arm spits offf and swims towards the` female

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17
Q

define hermaphrodite

A

male and female reproductive organs

cant self fertilsie

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18
Q

describe the costly mating of the bean weevil (callobrichus)

A

males penis has spines - lacerate the reproductive tract

  • shortens life span
  • increases time between female copulations
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19
Q

describe the costly mating in bed bugs

A

females dont have genital openings
males pierce body and place sperm in the haemocoel
sperm move ton eggs

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20
Q

describe sexual canabalism

and why it is adaptive

A

female eats male

  • nutritional benefit to female
  • maximises paternity by prolonging copulation
  • minimise paternity monopolisation
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21
Q

three key processes in gametogenesis

A

meiosis

  • spermatogenesis in males
  • oogenesis in females
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22
Q

briefly describe meiosis

A

homologus chromosomes
genetic recombination occurs
two rounds of cell diviision
in meiosis 2 the cell splits and produces 4 gametes

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23
Q

in humans sperm is produced in the _________ of the testes, and then is moved to the _______ where they are stored, the ______ transfer sperm to the penis

A

seminiferous tubules

epidiymis

vas deferens

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24
Q

seminal fluid makes up ____ of semen

A

90%

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25
Q

in fruit fly sperm is formed in the ____ of the testes and picks up seminal fluid from the _____

A

hub

accsessory glands

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26
Q

spermatogonial stem cells divide by ________ to produce _______ spermatocytes. Then each spermatocyte divides by ______ to form two secondary spermatocytes. Meiosis 2 occurs in which each secondary spermatocyte divides into _________ _______ _______

A

mitosis
primary
meiosis
four halploid spermatids

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27
Q

differences between spermatogenesis in inverts and humans

A

inverts, cysts within testes
humans - seminferous tubules

inverts - distal to proximal
humans - periphery to lumen

inverts in larval stage
humans - puberty

inverts - few days but 10,0000 per day
mammals - 74 days but 3000 million per day

inverts store in seminal vesicle
humans store in epidiymus

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28
Q 
use the:
- house mouse 
- zebra fish 
- nematodes 
as examples of diverse sper,m
A

house mouse has hooked sperm enables them to move in groups

zebrafish have more mitochondria

nematodes have pseudopodia instead of a tail allowing a crawling movement

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29
Q

descrine the sperm heteromorphism adaptation in butterflies

A

long fertile and short infertile
adaptation for sperm competition
infertile may act as a plug to prevent other males

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30
Q

describe oogenesis

A

primary oocyte divides germinal vesicle breaks down (nucleus)

meiosis 1
metaphase plate moves towards the edge by telophase one of the daughter cells contains very ittle cytoplasm

small cell = firstr polar body

large cell = secondary oocyte

second meiotic division:

polar body divides as well as secondary oocyte makes three polar bodies and one ovum

the ovum has more of the cytoplasm etc

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31
Q

compare oogenesis in inverts and humans

A

inverts: egg develop from distal region to proximal
human: oogenesis within a folicle grows for 2 weeks ruptures to release an egg

inverts: starts in larval stage
humans: 400,000 folicles folicles at birth no ovulation until puberty

inverts: 100 eggs per takes a few to mature an egg
humans : 1 egg matures each month

inverts released into uterus for fertilisation
human: folicle ruptures oocyte enters fallopian tube

inverts: egg develops outside the insect
humans: embeded into uterian wall

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32
Q

what hormone is released by females during puberty to start their period ? what does it do?

A

gondaotrophin releasing hormone

stimulates FSH (folicle stimulating hormone) and LH (lutenising hormone)

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33
Q

what happens to males at the start of puberty?

A

FSH causes the development of leydig cells which secrete testosterone stimulating spermatogenesis
- develops seminferous tubules and spermatogensis

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34
Q

what do FSH and LH do in females

A

FSH - stimulates folicle development and secretion of estrogens

LH - stimulates maturation of follicles and release of ova at ovulation

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35
Q

role of oestrogen in females

A

enhances folicle growth and grows endomethium

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36
Q

role of progestrone

A

grow and maintains endometrieum for pregnanct secretes nutrients to embryo

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37
Q

where is gondotrophin releasing hormone released from

A

hyperthalamus

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38
Q

when do LH and FSH peak?

A

ovulation

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39
Q

go through the series of events from release of Gondotrophin to mensruation

A

GnRH released from anterioir pituritory gland
LH released later
stimulates folicle growth
oestrogen released
LH surge
folicle realses egg
corpus luteium (egg housing) degenerates
protesteone and estorgone released
endometerium expands
if egg is unferilised then menstruation will happen

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40
Q

how does the birth control pill work, how effecrtive is it?

A

synthetic oestrogen and progesterone
no oestrogen peak
changes cervical mucus - more harsh for sperm

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41
Q

five stages of development

A

fertilisation - zygote formed

cleavage - cell division forms blastula

gastrulation - formation of tissue layers and axis

organogenesis - fromation of organs

morphogenesis - body shape formation

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42
Q

the mitochondria of the zygote all comes from the ______

A

mother

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43
Q

zygote has two spheres the _______ which contains the ______and the _______ which contains the ______

A

animal - nucleus

vegital - nutrients

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44
Q

describe the process that occurs after fertilisation in amphibians

A

vegital clear - animal is opauque

cortex rotates so site of ferilisation is at a junction between the animal and vegital spheres

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45
Q

in amphibians where does the crey crescent sit?

A

opposite the site of fertilisation

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46
Q

what is cleavage? what does it form?

A

a rapid series of cell divisions following fertilisation

  • typically double
  • each cell = blastomere
  • ball of cells = morula
  • blastula = hollow ball of cells
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47
Q

there is very little _____ during cleavage

A

growth

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48
Q

3 patterns of cleavage what determines the pattern?

A

complete
incomplete - discoidal
incomplete superficial

determined by the amount of yolk and spindle orientationo

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49
Q

when does complete cleavage occur

A

no or small amount of yolk

- where no yolk even division occurs

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50
Q

when does incomplete discoidal cleavage occur

A

lots of yolk - cleavage furrows dont penetrate the yolk - blastodisc froms on top of the yolk gives rise to embryo

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51
Q

when does incomeplte superficial cleavage occur?

A

when the yolk sits in the middle of the egg

cytokenesis doesnt follow nucleus division. nuclei migrate to the edges
plasma membranes grows inwards partioning the nuclei

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52
Q

when mitotic spindles form at right angles or parallel the cleavage is ?

A

radial

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53
Q

describe the mitotic spindles in rotaional cleavage

A

first division is parallel to a-v axis second is at right angles

54
Q

in early development cells are _________ . At ________ their fate becomes _______. At _________ th cells become structurally and functionally specialised

A

totipotent
determination
differentiation

55
Q

what is gastrulation?

A

where the blastula becomes an embryo

- tissue layers begin to fall

56
Q

what are the three tissue layers formed by gasturlation?

A

endoderm - inner layer produces digestive tract
ectoderm - epidermis and nervous system
mesoderm - bone muscle liver, heart and blood vessels

57
Q

describe the process of gasturlation in mammals

A

blastula invaginates at vegital hemisphere

cells migrate towards the blastocoel and become primary mesenchyme cells

invagination continues - archentron which becomes the gut

secondary mesemchyme cells attach to vegital pole

in protosomes the mouth forms from the blastopore where as deuterosomes the anus forms from the blastopore

58
Q

breief description of early development in birds

A

cleavage forms a blastodisc
epiblast forms the embryo and hypoblast forms extraembryonic membranes - the blastocoel lies in betweeen the two

gastrulation occurs when hensens node moves across the

59
Q

neurulation

A

formation of the nervous system, ectoderm thickens above the notochord

edges of thick area continue to thicken to give ridges

60
Q

neural crest cells produce what during neurulation?

A

peripheral nerves

61
Q

somites produce what during neurulation?

A

vertebrae ribs, muscles and trunk

62
Q 
define the following parts of the egg. 
- yolk sac 
- amnioitic sac
- chorion 
allantois
A

yolk sac = nutrient transfer via blood vessels
amniotic sac = protection surronding embryo
chorion = gas and water exchange, surronds embryo and yolk sac
allantois = waste storafe in mammals incorporated into ambilical chord

63
Q

what proportion of sperm survive the virgina

A

1 in 1 million

64
Q

mammalian egg structure

A

germinal vesicle = contains nucleus
ooplasm = cytoplasm of egg
viteline layer - cell membrane surronding ooplasm
zona pellucida - extracellular matrix that contains glycoproteins
surronded by corona radiata - layer of folicle cells

65
Q

structure of sperm

A

head - nucleus
neck - centriole
midpiece - mitochondria which provides energy for movement
tail - drives the sperm forward

66
Q

describe how the sperm penetrates the egg in mammals

A

vigorous motility to get through corona layer

undergoes acrosome reaction to get through the zona pelcuida

sperm and oocyte plasma membranes fuse - protein recognition and attahcment

sperm nucleus enters ovum

membrane and zp proteins block polyspermy

67
Q

describe how the sperm penetrates and fertilises the egg in sea urhcins

A

protective jelly coat dissolved by enzymes from sperm

sperm binds to receptors on microvilli which recognise species specific bindin proteins

potrusion from sperm head and membrane fusion occurs

68
Q

how do sea urchins protect themselves from polyspermy?

A

by changing their electrochemical gradient

69
Q

ZP2 egg protrein is in the top __% of most divergent molecules

A

5

70
Q

one of the fastest evolving metazoan proteins is ?

A

lysin - dissolves egg envelope in abalone molluscs

71
Q

three controlers of development

A

cytoplasm
genes
external environment

72
Q

what is genomic activation?

A

the transiion from maternal control to embryo control

73
Q

why is early development under maternal control?

A

in early embryos there is no transcription

all proteins and enzymes come from the cytoplasm

74
Q

differnetiation is caused by _______. How was this proved

A

differntial gene expressionn

take adult skin cells and mature them in a medium of transcription factors

nucleus of somatic cell transferred into enuclated egg and a normal embryo was produced.

also shows genomic equivalance and that the cytoplasm controls earlt devlelopment

75
Q

what is genomic equivialnce ?

A

no infomation is lost in the early stages of embryoninc development

76
Q

where are the cytoplasmic factors held? how do we know?

A

gray crescent

  • split the grey cresecent if split in two there are two normal tadpoles
  • if split unevenly with all grey crescent on one side then one tadpole and one belly piece
77
Q

desccribe cytoplasmic segregation. and why different segregation results in different outcomes

A

factor unequally distributed in the cytoplasm and ends up in some daughter cells but not others

most of the nurients are at the vegital poles

  • result depends on where the segregation occurs
  • horizontal - remain embryonic, only one has nutrients
  • vertical - normal but small since both have nutrients
78
Q

what is developmental induction?

A

where the presence of one tissue effects the development of another

79
Q

give an example of primary induction in birds and amphibians

A

amphibians - spemann organiser - dorsal lip of blastopore, which induces overlying ecotderm to form neural tissue

hensens node in birds
induced from the central nervous system

80
Q

give an example of secondary induction

A

forebrain starts to bulge and optical vesicle forms causes lens placode tissue to form

differentiates into a lens indues surface layer to become a cornea and the layers behind it to be an optic cup

81
Q

what morphogen controls the anterior prosterior axis of the limb, how does it do so?

A

BMP2

smallest dose of BMP2 causes the growth of the little finger etc

82
Q

male male zygotes wont form a ____ because the inner cell mass is _______ controlled> where as female female zygotes wont produce a ______ becuase this develops from ______ genes

A

embryo
maternally

placenta
paternal genes

83
Q

demonstarte how the same gene on maternal and paternal chromomes can cause different phneotype

A

prader willi syndrome - deletion on paternal chromosome 15
- compulsive eaters with learning difficulties

angelman syndrome
deletion in maaternal chromosome 15
- mobility issues and permanet happiness

84
Q

give the four types of genes involved in segmentation and what each one does

A

gap genes - organise large areas along the anterioir prosterioir axis

pair rule genes - divides each embryo into units of two segments

segmentation polarity genes - determine segment boundries

homeotic genes are expressed along the length of the body and determine what the segments will become

85
Q

homeotic genes are also known as what?

A

HOX genes

86
Q

apoptosis

A

programmed cell death

87
Q

how many of c elegans 1090 stomatic cells are programmed to die

A

131

88
Q

what enzymes stimulates apoptosis in human embryos hands ?

A

caspase

- removes webbing between fingers

89
Q

describe the infuence gut bacteria have on mpuse development

A

induce gene expression in the intestine which is essential for normal capillary development

90
Q

describe spina bifidia and how it is caused

A

where the neural tube fails to close at the posterioir end - part of the spine doesnt develop properly

91
Q

describe anencephaly

A

where the tube fails to close at the anterioir end - brain dioesnt develop properly gap in

92
Q

the chances of anencephaly and spina bifidia are redcued by

A

adequate folic acid when pregnant

93
Q

what causes cretinism, what are the symptoms

A

lack of iodine

symptoms include - drawfism and large heads

94
Q

what is sonic the hedgehog protein involved in?

A

fomration of the neural system

95
Q

what is the average rate of egg failure and what about in kakapos

A

10-15% average

70% for kakapo

96
Q

what are the two major types of cause of egg failure

A

fertilisation failure

embryo death

97
Q

ways an egg may fail because of fertilisation

A

sperm doesnt reach
sperm or ovum dysnfunction
female antisperm response

98
Q

what percentage of sperm that enter vagina female die?

A

0.00001%

99
Q

what part of the reproductive tract does fertilisation occur in

A

infundibulum

100
Q

if you bypass the uterus even ____ sperm gets to the egg.

A

dead

101
Q

describe how you can test the most succsessful bird sperm

A

female secretes glycoporteins into the outer perivitelline layer that trap sperm

  • can see the sperm that made it to the egg
  • measure them
102
Q

___ sperm have a competitive advantege over ____ sperm as long as the ______ and the _______ are equal size

A

long
small
midpiece and tail

103
Q

in birds polyspermy is normal which means?

A

sperm selection continues after entering the egg

104
Q

polyspermy is required for surivial in many bird eggs whuch part of the extra sperms is needed and how do we know this

A

injected single sperm with many proteins extracted from over 200 other sperm
only the sperm protein is needed

105
Q

4 mechanisms of cloning

A

natural
embryo splitting
reprogramming of somatic cells
nuclear transfer

106
Q

describe embryo splitting as a mechanism of cloning - who did it first

A

bisect the egg of a salamander
manipulatied monozygotic twins
spemann first to do it with a hair from his baby

107
Q

reprogramming of stomatic cell is basically ____________. and involves

A

revevrsing differntiation

- take cells and feed specific growth factors

108
Q

why is stomatic cell nuclear transfer controversial

A

invasive
tech porblems
ethical problems

109
Q

who were the first cloned mammals?

A

megan and morag the sheep

110
Q

how where megan and morag cloned

A

arrested embryo cells in G0 of interphase by depriving them of a growth factor

arrested cells into enuclated eggs and stimulated them

planted into surrogate

111
Q

why what was the argument against megan and morag being the first clones?

A

they had come from an embryo cells - argued that they hadnt lost complete totipotency

112
Q

how was dolly cloned

A

adult sheep mammary glands arrestred in G0

cells fused with enuclated eggs and transplanted intoo a surrogate

113
Q

why is cloning better than genetic modification of all lambs in an atempt to create theraputic milk

A

each trasngenic lamb requires 51.4 ewes

each transgenic clone requires 20.8 ewes

114
Q

what disease does polly and her sisters milk help to treat

A

haemophilia - has blood clotting factor nine

115
Q

first monkey to be cloned

A

ANDi - rhesus monkey

116
Q

for how long did cloning bring the pyrenean ibex back from extinction?

A

7 minutes

117
Q

why cant cloning ever bring back a loved one

A

only dna clones not cytoplasm ones
clones have their own mutations
differnent environments

aging - telemoeres shorten with age- clone has telomere of parent

large foetus syndrome - clones grow larger and need to be implanted into larger surrogates

118
Q

what disease is caused by a lack of dopamine

A

parkinsons

119
Q

what is evo devo

A

evolutionary development
- looks at how changes in the genes that regulate development affect the adult forms of organisms and how these changes have occured over the course of evolution

120
Q

what gene codes for eye growth in mice

A

Pax 6

121
Q

how did darwin know that gosseneck barnacles were crustaceans

A

by looking at their larval stage

122
Q

describe th emutatioon in the arhtopods that lead to the insects

A

arthropods have legs on their abdomen

insects have a mutation which produces a protein that represses the distal less gene in the abdomen which is essntial for leg formation

all insects legs orignate on the thorax and not the abdomen

123
Q

describe the roles of both BMP4 and gremlin in forming the ducks webbed feet

A

BMP4 expressed between the developing toes it insructs the cells to undergo apoptosis which destroys the webs

gremlin is a BMP4 inhibitor expressed around the digits to prevent toe dropping off

in ducks gremlin moves between toes allowing webbed feet

124
Q

describe temporal shifts in expression in bolitoglossa

A

webs disappear as they mature e.g. rostratus

some e.g. occidentales expression of these genes is slowed down allowing for suction cups enabling arboreal life

125
Q

what triggers egg production in mosquitos

A

a blood meal

- stimulates vitellogenin production

126
Q

describe the wet and dry season form of the squinting bush butterfly

A

dry is darker with less obvious eye spots itcomes out when it is less than 20

more than 24 and the wet form will develop

127
Q

polyphenism

A

two phylogenetic pathways dependant on climate

128
Q

describe the polyphenism in the moth nemoria arizoniaria

A

spring larvae feed on oak flowers and look like them

summer form look like oak leaves and eats stems

129
Q

describe the polyphenism in daphina

A 
encounter chaoborus (predator) and get spiky helmets 
- helmet induction occurs around the larvae of chaoborus  it is a trade off since those with helmets produce fewer eggs
130
Q

describe the polyphenism in spade foot toads

A

live in desert ponds
dry up quickly following a rainfall

eat insects and alage meaning slower develoment since poor nutrition

pond could dry up causes tadpoles to have a wider mouth and a stronger jaw

intestines become modified to eat meat

start to eat the other tadpoles

Semester 2 Exams (10 decks)

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