Approaches Flashcards
Introspection
‘Looking into’
Reflect on own cognitive processes and describe them
The first systematic experimental attempt to study the mind by breaking up conscious awareness into basic structures of thoughts, images and sensations.
Rene Descartes
Cartesian dualism
Mind and body separate entities
John Locke
Empiricism
Knowledge derived from sensory experience, studied using scientific method
Formed basis of behaviourist approach
Charles Darwin
Evolution
Human and animal behaviour changed over generations. Individuals with more adaptive genes survive and reproduce (survival of the fittest)
Wilhelm Wundt
‘Principles of physiological psychology’
Opened 1st psych laboratory
‘Father of psychology’
Structuralism- isolating the structure of consciousness, breaking down behaviours into basic elements
Scientific method
All behaviour is seen as being caused (determined)
If behaviour determines, should be possible to predict how individuals would behave in different conditions (predictability)
Objective
Systematic
Replicable
Objective
Fair
Unbiased
Based on facts/evidence
Systematic
Prescribed procedure
Replicable
Can be repeated again in same way with same results
Introspection evaluation: strengths
Pavlov and Thorndike-reproducible results could be generalised to all
May not seem scientific but used today to gain access to cognitive processes (Griffiths asked think aloud)
Introversion evaluation: weaknesses
Relies on non-observable responses
Unable to comment on unconscious factors
Subjective data (varied from people) so difficult to establish general principles, results not reproduced
Scientific approach evaluation: strengths
Info acquired from replicable methods
Scientific knowledge is ever-evolving (self-corrective)
Scientific approach evaluation: weaknesses
Controlled situations=artificial behaviour
Unobservable so can’t be measured with any degree of accuracy
Not all agree behaviour can be explored through scientific methods
Empiricism
Belief that all knowledge is derived from sensory experience and can be studied using scientific method
Structuralism
Breaking down behaviours into their basic elements
JB Watson
Rejected vagueness of introspection and focussing on how we are a product of our learning, experience and environment
Assumptions of behaviourist approach
Observable behaviour
Scientific- observed in high control
When born, mind is blank slate
Learning in humans and animals are almost the same
Behaviour=result of stimulus, produces response
Learnt from environment (classical/operant)
Stimulus
Anything that brings about a response
Response
Any reaction in the presence of a stimulus
Reinforcement
The process by which a response is strengthened
Conditioning
Shaping or changing a behaviour
Classical and operant
Classical conditioning
Learning through association
Pavlov’s dogs
Involves pairing a response naturally caused by one stimulus with another previously neutral stimulus
Skinner claimed..
All behaviour is learnt as a result of consequences in environment
Operant conditioning
Operant conditioning
Learning from consequences like gaining rewards or punishments
Skinner’s rats
Association between response and consequence has to be made close together in time for learning to occur
Positive reinforcement
Increases the likelihood of a response because it involves a reward for the behaviour
Negative reinforcement
Increases the likelihood of a response because it removes an unpleasant consequence
Positive punishment
Receiving something unpleasant
Negative punishment
Removing something desirable
Behaviourist approach strengths
Scientific
Replicable
Quantitative data
Can be applied to real world, produced practical applications
Behaviourist approach weaknesses
Ignores mental processes Reductionist-only looks at biology Deterministic-ignores free will Lack ecological validity Research unethical Lack qualitative data (feelings) Data from animals
Cognitive approach
Behaviour is determined by the way we process information taken in from our environment
Behaviour in terms of thoughts, beliefs, attitudes
Assumptions of cognitive approach
Events within a person
Possible to study internal mental processes
Insight into mental processes may be inferred from behaviour
How thinking shapes behaviour
Cognitive processes
Way in which knowledge is gained, retained and used
Internal mental processes
Humans are information processors
How info received from senses is processed by brain and how this directs how we behave
Mental processes studied by cognitive psychologists
Perception Attention Memory Language Thinking Problem solving
Schema
Building blocks of knowledge
Mental structures that represent an aspect of world
Help make sense of world by providing short cuts
Developed from experience
Theoretical and computer models
Compare human mind to computer Take info (input), store or change (process), recall when necessary (output)
Computer analogy
Brain = hardware
Cognitive processes = software
Cognitive neuroscience
The scientific study of biological structures that underpin cognitive processes
Interested in social cognition : brain regions involved when interacting
Cognitive approach strengths
Scientific, controlled research
Computer models help understand unobservable mental processes
Less deterministic (think before responding)
Useful applications
Successfully integrated into other approaches
Cognitive approach weaknesses
‘Man as machine’ = simplistic, reductionist, ignoring emotional, motivational and social factors in human behaviour
Lab experiments - lack ecological validity
Ignores why cognitive processes happen
Albert Bandura proposed
Important mental processes lie between stimulus and response
Bridge between behavioural and cognitive approach
Assumptions of social learning approach
Human rather than animal behaviour
People as active manipulators of own environment rather than passive receivers of experiences (responsible for behaviour)
Learning occurs through the observation of role models
Learning can occur without reinforcement
Mediational processes
Mediational processes
Observational learning uses cognitive processes such as memory. Occur between stimulus and response
4 stages of modelling
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
Attention
Noticing the behaviour
Retention
Remembering the behaviour
Motor reproduction
It has to be physically possible
Motivation
Has to be a reason to want to copy the model
Acquisition of behaviour
Attention
Retention
Performing of a behaviour
Reproduction
Motivation
Expectancy
Behaviour only imitated if there’s an expectancy of reinforcement
Motivated by results
Self-efficacy
Belief that behaviour can be imitated
Social learning approach strengths
Considers cognitive factors in learning
Based on lab exp
Less deterministic and reductionist
Explains development of culture
Explains learning of complex behaviours (aggression)
Applied to many areas of psychology (gender development)
Social learning approach weaknesses
Ignores biology
Mostly on external behaviour
Doesn’t explain individual differences (reinforcement may have diff affect)
Lab exp = artificial
Biological approach
Tries to explain how we think, feel and behave in terms of physical factors within the body
Physiology - the study of the body and its parts and how they function
Assumptions of biological approach
Everything psychological is first biological
How biological structures and processes impact behaviour
Behaviour has physiological cause - genetically/ environmentally altered
Genes affect
Study brain
Mind lives in brain
Genetic basis of behaviour
Trying to determine and provide evidence for the extent to which behaviour, or a characteristic such as intelligence are the product of inheritance, or environmental influences
Methods of investigating genetic basis of behaviour
Twin studies
Family studies
Adoption studies
Selective breeding
Concordance rates
Extent to which a pair of twins share similar traits or characteristics
100% concordance rate
Between MZ twins if particular characteristics is genetic
Francis Galton proposed
All natural abilities are inherited
Later agreed that any resemblance between relatives could be because of environment
Selective breeding
Artificially selecting animals for a trait, breeding for offspring
Genotype
Actual set of genes an individual has
Phenotype
Individuals anatomical features or observed traits
Evolution
The changes in inherited characteristics in a biological population over successive generations
Biological approach strengths
Scientific
Establishes psychology as a respectable science-lends credence to study of psychology
Lead to treatment
Measurements from machines
Biological approach weaknesses
Deterministic (no free will) Reductionist (not unique as individuals) Ignores environment Research focus on rare conditions that have little impact on everyday lives of most Human error with machines Correlations don't mean cause and effect Small samples Lab exp
Human nervous system divides into
Central nervous system (CNS)
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
CNS divides into
Brain
Spinal cord
PNS divides into
Autonomic nervous system
Somatic nervous system
Autonomic nervous system divides into
Sympathetic nervous system
Parasympathetic nervous system
PNS
transmits messages via millions of neurones to and from CNS
Somatic nervous system
Part of PNS responsible for carrying sensory and motor info to and from spinal cord
Autonomic nervous system (ANS)
Governs vital functions in body such as breathing, heart rate
Two divisions of ANS are
Mostly antagonistic, so work in opposition to each other
Sympathetic nervous system actions
Slows digestion Inhibits saliva production Increases heart rate Stimulates glucose production Stimulates urination Dilates pupils Dilates bronchi
Parasympathetic nervous system actions
Increases digestion Increases saliva production Decreases heart rate Stimulates bile production Inhibits urination Constricts pupils Constricts bronchi
Sympathetic nervous system
Generally prepares the body to expend energy for fight or flight
Parasympathetic nervous system
Generally maintains and conserves body energy and functions
The endocrine system
In charge of body processes that happen slowly e.g. cell growth/hormones
Adrenaline
Released into bloodstream, prepares body for fight or flight by constricting blood vessels in stomach - inhibits digestion - sick feeling, increased heart rate
