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Conceptual > Applied Psychology > Flashcards

Applied Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

Who was Wundt (1832-1920) ?

A
  • took psychology from a mixture of philosophy and biology and made it a unique field of study.
  • Used the scientific method to study mind and behaviour
  • Basic research should precede applied research/applications
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2
Q

What were some conceptual underpinnings of early applied psychology ?

A
  • Functionalism (e.g., William James)
  • Mind is for adaptation to the environment
  • Psychology as pragmatic
  • Contrast with goals of Structuralism (e.g., Titchener)
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3
Q

Essentialism vs Pragmatism?

A
  • Essentialism – Analysis of behaviour/performance in a setting/task into essential underlying mental capacities (allied to structuralism)
  • Pragmatism – Analysis of mental processes involved in the given setting/task itself (allied to functionalism)
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4
Q

Who was Hugo Münsterberg (1863-1916)?

A
  • Context: German ideology
  • American society characterized by lack of respect for authority
  • Offered German culture + new science of psychology
  • Psychology in place of a monarchy
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5
Q

What did Hugo Münsterberg (1863-1916) believe about eye witness testimony?

A
  • Argued against reliance on eye witness testimony
  • Staged demonstrations of assaults during classes
  • “warned against the blind confidence in the observations of the average man”
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6
Q

How did Münsterberg (1863-1916) help with Legal procedures ?

A
  • On the Witness Stand (1908)
  • “The lawyer and the judge and the juryman are sure that they do not need the experimental psychologist . . . They go on thinking that their legal instinct and their common sense supplies them with all that is needed and somewhat more . . .”
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7
Q

How did Münsterberg (1863-1916) Contribute to Psychotherapy?

A
  • Mental illness
  • Saw patients
  • Wrote book: Psychotherapy (1909)
  • To dispel myths about mental illness
  • To challenge psychoanalysis (cf. Freud)
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8
Q

What approach did Telephone switchboard Operators lead to?

A

Analytic approach (cf. essentialism)

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9
Q

What approach did Boston Street Railway Motormen lead to?

A

Synthetic approach (cf. pragmatism)

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10
Q

Were these early applications of psychology too early?

A
  • “Dr. Munsterberg has the fatal gift of writing easily—fatal especially in science, and most of all in a young science where accuracy is the one thing most needful” (Titchener, 1891, p. 594)
  • “…he turned to fields for the application of psychology before they had a research basis on which to operate” (Watson, 1978, p. 410, cited in Bootzin, 2007)
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11
Q

The experimental study of Vigilance?

A
  • The capacity to sustain attention
  • Decrement in the ability to detect rare signals over time
  • Problems detecting faulty gun cartridges during WW1 (e.g., Wyatt & Langdon, 1932)
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12
Q

What are Radar operators (WWII – Mackworth, 1948)?

A
  • -Targets difficult to discriminate from background noise
    • Very few targets
    • Long periods of isolated work in darkened rooms
    • Efficiency could drop 80% over a 40-min watch
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13
Q

What is The Clock test?

A

– Monitor for rare “double-jumps” of a rotating black pointer

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14
Q

Different measures of vigilance performance?

A
  • Early studies focused on detection rate (or/and reaction time) – “False alarm” rates only sometimes reported (and separately)
  • Not dissociating different measures – important evidence being lost? For example: – Parallel decline of detection + false alarms = Support for ‘increasing conservatism’ account
    • Decline in detection + stable or increasing false alarms = Support for deterioration of perceptual sensitivity
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15
Q

Vigilance research and signal detection theory (SDT)

A

-Two scores could now be derived:
–d’ (or d-prime) reflecting a person’s sensitivity to a signal
–B (or beta) reflecting the level of evidence at which the observer is willing to report a signal (reflects person’s confidence/conservatism)

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16
Q

The Cambridge Cockpit: Key findings (e.g., Bartlett, 1943, Drew, 1940)

A

-Performance of skilled pilots in a simulator for >2 hrs:
-Control of aircraft deteriorated 50% over the 2hrs
-Deterioration in the timing and sequencing of actions
-Decrease in aspirations
-Marked attentional lapses for peripheral activities relying on working memory
-Loss of task integration
-Impairment of skills occurred in the reverse order to that in which they were learned
-Subjective (not just performance) changes
The legacy of early human factors
-Theoretical and conceptual: > Practical utility of SDT > Insight into nature of sustained, selective and divided attention; working memory > Pre-empted cognitive psychology
-Impact in the ‘real world’: > Air traffic control > Aviation > Transport > Medicine

17
Q

Impact of World War I (1914-18)

A
  • > 25% of members of the American Psychological Society (APA) served in World War I
  • 12 committees of APA dedicated to helping the war effort, e.g.,
    (a) Evaluation of perception in prospective air servicemen mental states under low oxygen pressure
    (b) Personnel selection: Intelligence and aptitude testing
    (c) Diagnosis and treatment of “war psychoses/shellshock”
  • Sudden need for more clinical psychologists
  • New fighting techniques of World War I put immense mental strain on soldiers
  • The impact of “shellshock”
  • US joins WW II - offers intensive course in treatment of mental disorders to all medical officers; clinical psychologists also recruited
18
Q

Impact of World War II

A
  • Beginning of client-centred psychotherapy
  • Rising demand for psychological help due to WW II catalysed new therapies
  • Psychoanalysis – required many sessions; effectiveness unclear
  • Client-led searching for solutions by talking through problems with a sympathetic, supportive therapist
19
Q

1942: Carl Rogers publishes Counselling and Psychotherapy

A
  • Introduction was telling:
  • “There are a great many professionals who spend a large portion of their time in interviewing, bringing about a constructive change of attitude on the part of their clients through individual face-to-face contacts. Whether such individuals calls himself a psychologist, a college counselor…or by some other name, his approach to the attitudes of his client is of concern to us in this book…” (p. 3)
20
Q

Context: The struggle between medical Doctors (psychiatrists) and psychologists regarding right to practice psychotherapy

A

-For Rogers, a good therapist needed only:
– Unconditional positive regard
– Empathic understanding
– Congruence; genuine understanding

21
Q

Post-World War II

A

-Three key developments after WW II that facilitated the rise of clinical psychology:
– Anti-psychiatry
– Input from scientific research into psychotherapy
– Development of psychoactive drugs

22
Q

What as Anti-psychiatry?

A
  • 1960s-1970s: Cultural movement (revolution?) against the establishment (cf. hippies; Greenpeace; AntiVietnam war protests)
  • Psychiatry began to be criticised as a thief of individual expression; to be demeaning and dangerous
  • Previous decades had seen psychiatry adopting invasive physical treatments…
23
Q

(Some of the reasons for) Anti-psychiatry ?

A
  • The lobotomy – Severing of nerve fibres connecting the frontal and pre-frontal cortex to the rest of the brain
  • Ice-pick lobotomy - Ice-pick inserted under local anaesthetic – No need for hospitalisation – ‘Production line’ lobotomies - 1939 -1951: 18,000 lobotomies performed
24
Q

Anti-psychiatry (reasons for)?

A

-Electroshocks (Electroconvulsive therapy; ECT)
– 100 volts through electrodes placed bilaterally or unilaterally (front or back)
– 3 times a week for 2 to 7 weeks
– Muscle relaxants (now) used to prevent physical Injury
-Still used today for severe and otherwise incurable depression – Effective treatment
-But its use for a long time was much wider and used in absence of empirical support

25
Q

Anti-psychiatry in fiction ?

A
  • Use of lobotomy and electroshocks exposed through literature: One flew over the cuckoo’s nest – Book (1962) – Ken Kesey – Oscar-winning film (1975)
  • “ECT stands practically alone among the medical/surgical interventions in that its goal was not to cure but to control the patients for the benefits of the hospital staff” (David Rothman, 1985)
26
Q

Anti-psychiatry by psychiatrists?

A

-Anti-psychiatry movement
-Pressure group that called psychiatry into question
-Psychiatry seen as a political tool
-Rebellion came also from within the ‘establishment’: – 1960:
-Thomas Szasz: ‘The Myth of Mental Illness’ R.D. Laing: ‘The divided self: An existential study of sanity and madness’
– 1973: David Rosenhan: ‘On being sane in insane places

27
Q

Anti-psychiatry Hits the Streets?

A
  • Anti-psychiatry movement –Things have to change!
  • More respect for the rights of patients
  • Hospitalisation to be as short as possible
  • Measures to prevent hospitalisation
28
Q

Input from science

A
  • Empirical (i.e., scientific) evaluation of efficiency of therapies
  • 1952 – A wake-up call: Eysenck’s review of efficacy of ‘talking cures’ for non-psychotic patients not encouraging
  • Psychotherapy vs. those on waiting list for psychotherapy (control group) = 2/3 had improved in both groups 2 years later
  • But – led to therapies being used only if grounded in psychological research and…
  • Gave rise to more efficacy research; results in the 60s+70s more favourable
29
Q

Development of psychoactive drugs

A
  • 1950-60s: Psychiatrists lowered their resistance to non-psychiatrists (e.g., clinical psychologists) treating patients through psychotherapy
  • Why? Psychology pressure groups
  • Psychiatrists increasingly turned to medicines to treat mental disorders, e.g., chlorpromazine
  • Only medical practitioners could prescribe them
30
Q

Social management and individualisation ?

A
  • Since 16th century, authorities increasingly replacing family for the control of social deviants or those not able to maintain themselves
  • 20th century: The welfare state – taxed-based state services
  • Reliance on mental health services grew because – People wanted professional help – Social mobility led to social relationships being limited to workplaces and hence non-confiding
  • Growing individualism
31
Q

Increased knowledge of clinical psychology in the population ?

A
  • Late 20th to present-day: Knowledge of clinical psychology pervasive in society
  • Integrated into mainstream professional training
  • Becoming part of common knowledge via popular media and manifest in day-to-day language:
  • “extrovert”, “neurotic”, “depressed”, “paranoid”, “addicted”, “deluded” “traumatized”, “stressed”

Conceptual (10 decks)

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