Apiculture Flashcards
Honeybee biology - why are bees important?
1/3 of what we ea is pollinated by bees
Base of the food chain
Neonicotinoids
Compared to organophosphates less toxic in birds and mammals but lethal for insects in minute quantities
What neonicotinoids is the UK set to ban?
Clothianidin, Imidacloprid, Thiamethoxam
Describe Basic Honeybee biology
- Colony comprised of 80,000 individuals
- Over 90% of all species solitary bees
- Up to 25,000 known species
- Bees evolved from wasps that fed on pollen insects and began to prefer pollen
What social system do bees have?
Eusociality: strict division between non-breeding workers and a breeding queen (accepted also due to sibling relatedness)
Mating & genes
MAle offspring only has mum genes
Female offspring have 2x as many chromosomes (Hapldiploidy) -> share most genes - very susceptible to spread of pathogens
Describe larval and pupal stages
- Cells continually used (queen lays 1 egg per cell)
- ‘Nurse’ bees feed the larvae (D1- 3 get Royal jelly , D4-6 workers get beebread instead )
- Cell capped with wax on d7 (queen hatch in 16d, workers 20d, drones 24d)
What first task of a bee?
- Cell cleaning (day 1-2)
- Nurse bee (day 3-11)
- Wax production (day 12-17)
What INDOOR tasks?
Honey seeling
Honeycomb building (propolizing)
Pollen packing and Drone feeding
Queen attendants
Undertaker bees: removal of individuals that die
Fanning bees: thermoregulation
What OUTDOOR Tasks (expert bees) ?
Water carriers
Foraging bees (day 22-42)
What ways can pathogens be transmitted?
Horizontal -> Direct or Indirect
Vertical : from queen to larvae
Detail Direct spread
- contact (grooming, feeding food and water)
- Injection (e.G. Varroa)
Detail Indirect spread
- Equipment / beekeeper
- Infected hives
- Honey used for winter feeding
- Foraging, water
- drifting / robbing
- Sexual
What Macroparasites damage combs and honey?
- Small hive beetle: Aethina tumida
- Wax moth: Galleria mellonella
Describe small hive beetle
- Endemic to sub-saharan africa
- Honey becomes discoloured and over-fermented
- Heavy infestation can lead to bees abandoning a hive
Describe the Wax Moth Macroparasite
- Caterpillar feed on honeycomb
- COmmercially available food for insectivore animals
- Used as a model organism in toxicology/ pathogenesis studies
How do we control these macroparasites that damage combs and honey ?
Coumaphos traps
Sulphur-
Acetic acid-based solutions
HEalthy bees attack insects, so if found can indicate weak colony and other dx
What MAcro parasites damage the health of colony?
- Trachela mites (Acarapis woodi)
- Varroa mites (Varroa destructor)
describe Tracheal Mites
- Infect trachea of bees, live & reproduce by feeding on hemolymph
- Infection by direct contact with young adults
- No symptoms -< crawl around unable to fly due to air duct obstruction & loss fo hemolymph
Prognosis for tracheal mite infestation?
Colony winter survival unlikely if >30% infection
Describe Varroa mites
- Greenish white, males ; red/ brown females
- Penetrating mouth-parts that feed on both adult & brood
- Weakening effect & inc spread of viruses
Describe Nosema (Mcirosporidia) as Micro-fungal infection
- Opportunistic when bees ar eunable to leave hive to ‘cleanse’, normally during wet weather
- SPore forming persisting in wax, honey, pollen and wood up to 1 yr
Transmission, signs & detection of Nosema?
- Germinate in midgut and enter gut epithelia to multiply, releasing spores from dying cells into lumen and then feces
- decrease gut function, dysentery, hypopharyngeal atrophy, failing queen, reduced life
- dissection (milky guts), microscopy (spores), PCR
Treatment for Nosema?
- ANtibiotic fumagillin
- Good apiary hygiene, ventilation
- Re-queen & shook swarm
Chalkbrood (Ascophaera apis) fungal infection - characteristics?
- Opportunistic during moist, warm conditions
- SPore forming, persisting in wax, hone, pollen ,and wood up to 1 yr
What Transmission & Signs / detection for chalkbrood ?
- Enter gut epithelia of brood absorbing nutrients & multiplying > larva dies of starvation > larva/fungus swells to fill cavity > hardens, shrinks & is removed
- ‘Mummies’ in cells, floor or at hive front from which spores are spread via bees or keeper
Treatment for Chalkbrood?
- None althorugh Apiguard suggested?
- Good hygiene / requeen / shook swarm
Compare Melissococcus plutonius and Paenibacillus larvae as micro-bacterial infections?
see image
Control/Tx of Melissococcus plutonius and Paenibacillus larvae?
- Beekeeper hygiene
- Euipment / bee vector
- Select hygienic bees
- EFB: Shook swarm AFB: ‘Torch and scorch’
- No ABs effective
Describe presence of Micro-viral infections?
- First reported 1913 as cause fo sacbrood dx
- MAinly RNA viruses
Describe the Sacbrood virus
- first identified an dfully sequenced virus of the honeybee
- Widely distributed, causing overt dx in the hive
- Spring/summer >Autumn
- No obvious symptoms in adults
Transmission of Sacbrood virus?
- Within a colony via nurse bees that become infected whilst removing larvae killed by SBV
- To other hives- due to Drift
- Detected in large quantities in Varroa-infected colonies but not been shown to actively transmit it
What is one of the most prevalent infections in Apis Mellifera?
Deformed Wing Virus (DWV)
Describe DWV
Genetic similarity to other viruses such as Varroa destructor virus and Kakugo virus complex although produce different symptoms
What does BQCV stand for?
Black queen cell virus
Describe BQCV
- Incidence is higher in SPRING & Summer
- Positive association with Nosema but mechanism remains unknown
- Transmitted through glandular secretions of nurse bees
What do we see as result of BQSV?
- Affects developing queen larvae and pupae while in capped cells
- Larvae have pale yellow appearance and sac-like skin
- Pupae turn dark / black and die rapidly
WHAT OTHER DICISTROVIRIDAE VIRUSES are there?
- Acute bee paralysis virus (ABPV)
- Kashmir bee virus (KBV)
- Israeli acute paralysis virus (IAPV) complex
What is CBPV?
Chronic bee paralysis virus
Describe CBPV
- Unclassified RNa virus with world-wide distribution
-Infected bees may harbor many viral particles in head region, allowing virus to cause nervous system damage
What do we see with CBPV?
Adults commonly affected, showing abnormal trembling, flightlessness and shiny, hairless abdomens. Die within a week
What BEHAVIOUR defences do honeybees have against pathogens?
- Grooming & allogrooming
- Bee ball
- Cell cleaning
- Undertaker bees
- Social distancing
- Guard bees (stinger)
What MECHANICAL honeybee defences against pathogens?
- Propolis - sealing to mummify predators in hive
- Exoskeleton
- Chitinous trachea lining
- Peritrophic membrane (might lining)
- Biochemical gut environment
- Antibiotic system in pollen, honey, royal jelly …
- Innate immunity (lack Ig-based immune response characteristic of other animals
- Own microbiota
What DIRECT beekeeper tx against pathogens?
- Contact (hard/soft chemicals)
- Dusting (sugar)
- Feeding (Sugar + oxalic acid)
- Mechanical (oil trap/ beed gym)
- Antibiotics (oxytet)
What INDIRECT beekeeper tx against pathogens?
- Equipment fumigation (sulphur dioxide, acetic aid)
- Bee fumigation (formic aid, oxalic acid)
- Fire (scorching)
What is integrated pest management?
- Sustainable contorl plan monitoring to avoid disease and pathogens
- Using natural methods derived from bee & colony bhvr
- To find organism traits that fit into an artificial situation
What Integrated pest management can we use?
- Varroa as a vector
- Comb as a vector
- Bhvr as a vector
- Equipment as a vector
How do we use Varroa as a vector?
A. ASSESS varroa population for 3-4 yrs:
i. early spring before honey flow and after
ii. Late summer at the time of honey harvest
iii. LAte autumn to establish low mite n° for overwintering
B. Sacrifical Drone Brood (March-Aug): sacrifice a full comb of drones at ay 24 to naturally control mites
How do we use Comb as a vector?
- replacing some on a regular basis or all at once (Bailey change)
- SHaking all bees into new clean hive (Shook swarm)
- Use honey from strong colonies to ‘help’ weaker/ growing colonies
Describe Bhvr as a vector
- avoid ‘robbing’ by feeding the hive at end of the day
- Avoid ‘drifting’ by marking hives with patterns/ colours; placing hives randomly within apiary, and keeping hives clean
- Breed for specific traits: some better at grooming etc
Equipment as a vector?
- Keep equipment & tools clean between hives
- Attitude/ records
What is CCD (Colony Collapse Disorder)?
- Specific disorder mainly affecting migratory beekeepers in USA
- sudden depopulation of adult bees
What considerations of CCD?
- Co-infections more likely
- New way of transmission of old pathogens from Varroa mites
- Pesticides appear to interfere with learning abilities of bees - may contribute
- Stress - transport etc more prone to CCD
Explain how Varroa transmission with CCD
New way of transmission (and selection) of old pathogens from Varroa
mites. Mites can inject pathogens directly into the haemolymph, influencing
pathogen strain selection. However, mites are widespread in the world, including
countries where CCD is not present.
