APES Test 1

Question 1

Shannon’s Diversity

Answer 1

Species, Frequency, proportion, ln of proportion, proportion x ln of proportion

Question 2

Chi Squared

Answer 2

remember tables stuff
(Actual - expected)^2 / (expected)

Question 3

HBI

Answer 3

(amount of specific species x tolerance number) + (repeat for all species) / total number of organisms

Question 4

Ecosystem Services Lab

Answer 4

3.1
Vegetation reduces air pollution
Reduction is primarily caused by vegetation filtering pollution and particulates from the air
3.2
All natural ecosystems in cities help to regulate climate
Water areas help even out temp during both winter and sumer
Vegetation transpires water, which consumes a large amount of heat energy in the process
Vegetation also decreases energy use for heating and air condition by shading houses in summer and reducing wind speed in winter
3.3
Soft grass lawns decrease noise in cities
Vegetation also contributes to the decrease, but at what level is uncertain
3.4
Vegetated areas help to drain rainwater
The soft ground of vegetated areas allows water to seep through and the vegetation takes up water and releases it into the ait through evapotranspiration
3.5
Natural systems, mainly wetlands, can be used to treat sewage water
Wetland plants and animals can assimilate large amount of the nutrients and slow down the flow of the sewage water, allowing particles to settle out on the bottom
3.6
Vegetated areas such as parks provide possibilities to play and rest, as well as providing aesthetic and cultural values to cities and lending structure to the landscape

Question 5

2.1 Daily Video 1 - intro to biodiversity

Answer 5

Genetic diversity - DNA
Species diversity - visibly see
Count up the number of species
Species richness - how many species are in each area
Species evenness
Habitiabe divinity - habitat

Question 6

2.1 Daily Video 2 - Intro to biodiversity

Answer 6

Nature selections certain genes and make a new thing
If gene pool decreased - population bottleneck
Gene pool shrink
Inbreeding, birth defects, etc
More genetically diverse a population is the better it can respond to its environmental stressors
Loss of habitat leads to a loss of specialist species, followed by a loss of generalist species
Ecosystems with a large number of species are more likely to recover from disruptions

Question 7

2.1 Daily Video 3 - Intro to biodiversity

Answer 7

all members of a food chain are affected by losing one link (one member)
links are lost from habitat loss, invasive species, pollution , human population , overharvesting everything is effected
Food web is more stable and complex
specialists have a harder time adapting to change
Higher genetic Biodiversity
Low variation in environmental conditions
Evolution
Minor disturbances like surface firs, wind storms, and floods
High habitat diversity
Lower genetic biodiversity
Continuous environmental stress
Extinction
Extreme disturbance, crown fires, clear cutting and hurricanes ,
geographic isolation
Invasive species

Question 8

2.2 Video 1 - Ecosystem Services

Answer 8

Anthropcentric - human kind over natural world
ecocentric - centers environment, recognizes inherent value of all ecosystems
Providing
Regulating
Cultural
Supporting
instrumental value - direct value (economical short term), indirect value ((economical short value)
intrinsic value - ethical value (environmental long-term)

Question 9

2.2 Video 2 - Ecosystem services

Answer 9

Providing
Food, raw material , fresh water, medicinal resource
Any the of benefit to the people that can be extracted from nature
Refulating
Benefit provided by ecosystem that moderate natural phenomena
Local climate and air quality, carbon sequestration and storage, moderation of extreme events, wastewater treatment
Cultural
Non material benefit it that contributes to the development and cultural advancement of people
Recreation and mental health ecotourism , looks nice, spiritual
Supporting
Ecosystems themselves couldn’t be sustained without the conisty of underlying natural process

Question 10

2.3 Daily Video 1 - Island Biogeography

Answer 10

Island biogeography is the study of the ecological relationships and distribution of organisms on islands, and of these organisms’ community structure
Islands have been colonized in the past by new species arriving from elsewhere
Many island species have evolved to be specialists versus generalists because of the limited resources, such as food or territory, on most islands
The long term survival of specialists may be jeopardized if and when invasive species, typically generalists, are introduced and outcompete the specialists
Specific Notes
Robert McArthur and E.O. Wilson 1967
Highest species richness will be found on large islands near the mainland
Lowest species richness will be found on small islands far from the mainland
Other than actual physical islands, biogeographers look at habitat islands
Habitats can be divided (habitat fragmentation) b/c of housing developments, freeways, logging operation, agriculture, etc.
When this happens, habitat islands are created
What species would we expect
Not all species are suited to fragmented habitat, natural selection selects for some species ands select against others, some go missing
When we create habitat islands, we see a decrease in core habitat, it selects against apex predators and specialists
we see an increase in edge habitat, more surface area around the edge and more perimeters, some animals are fine with smaller areas of habitat and can easily move from one area to another, more generalist species are selected for
Endangered and threatened species are hindered by habitat fragmentation

Question 11

2.3 Daily Video 2 - Island Biogeography

Answer 11

Fragmentation changes from year to year
Animals who lives in this habitat have to be able to adapt to this fragmentation, the change in the fragmentation
Forests are patches of habitat (fragments) on global scale
Habitation fragmentation creates edges and core habitat
Edges have much different abiotic conditions, drier(more sunlight), windier, maybe plants more susceptible to disease b/c they are on the edge rather than center
Bare areas (from habitat fragmentation) may be replanted if it was b/c of logging, or converted into monoculture
Sometimes gaps from habitat fragmentation are smaller, sometimes larger, sometimes species can cross gaps, but some can’t
Bigger areas can stop species from crossing gaps, but even smaller areas can for smaller organisms such as invertebrates, insects, soil organisms
Ex. even bike path could be considered habitat fragmentation
Some species need connected habitat, long expanse (such as apex predators)
To solve habitat fragmentation, we want ways to connect habitats, called habitat corridors
If we can at least connect habitat islands, you can at least have all species travel from one area to another
Would maintain genetic diversity within populations

Question 12

2.4: Daily Video 1 - Ecological Tolerance

Answer 12

Essential Knowledge
Ecological tolerance refers to the range of conditions such as temperature, salinity, flow rate, and sunlight that an organism can endure before injury or death
Ecological tolerance can apply to individuals and species
Each individual or species has a range of abiotic conditions it has adapted to

Example
Individual coral can tolerate changes in temp
Coral has a symbiotic relationship with algae, when temp gets too hot (when it’s outside their ecological tolerance) the coral lose the algae and turn white or bleach
Experiment - Ofu Island
Lagoons on one side of the island had coral reefs exposed to high temperatures; lagoons on the other side of the island are much cooler
Testable question: do the coral from the warm pools have a broader heat tolerance than coral from the cooler pools
Put coral from both sides of the island into stress tanks, tested for how much bleaching there was
Less coral from the warmer pool bleached, more coral from the cooler pools bleached
Coral from the warm pool are more tolerant of higher temperatures
Higher tolerance is b/c there is genetic diversity in coral, therefore some have heat tolerant genes that allow them to survive in warmer waters

Takeaways
Changes in abiotic conditions could lead to environmental stress on an individual organism
The stress can bring about changes in “fitness” (physiology, behavior, reproductive ability) or cause death
The more genetically diverse a population is the better it can respond to environmental stressors

Question 13

2.4: Daily Video 2 - Ecological Tolerance

Answer 13

Dissolved Oxygen - another important abiotic factor
Amount of dissolved oxygen in aquatic ecosystem is critical for survival of fish species; fish absorb the dissolved oxygen directly from the water into their bloodstream through their gills
Different species have different ecological tolerance for dissolved oxygen, have range for the level of dissolved oxygen they can live in
Measuring amount of dissolved oxygen is one of the most important water quality tests in determining if habitat is suitable for different fish species
Aquatic biologists can use this info n the management of freshwater and marine fisheries
Broadest ecological tolerance is the biggest range, narrowest ecological tolerance is smallest range
Middle of ecological tolerance range is optimal condition
Why will species be affected by lower dissolved oxygen?
Trout have a narrow range of ecological tolerance for dissolved oxygen and therefore cannot thrive and reproduce if dissolved oxygen concentration falls too low
Example of highly oxygenated river, Yosemite National Park
Oxygen gets into water from photosynthesis, but also as water is tumbling over rocks, lots of oxygen from atmosphere diffuses into water

Takeaways
Range of tolerance is a span of abiotic conditions an individual or species can endure
The Range of Tolerance is often represented as a bell shaped curve; a Goldilocks Curve
Optimal range is in the middle, outliers are where many don’t survive/thrive
Different species within the same habitat define their niche based on range of tolerance

Question 14

2.5 Video 1- Natural Disruptions to Ecosystems

Answer 14

2 types of disruptions:

Human disruption (anthropogenic)

Natural disruption
Periodic disruptions
Spring rains → depositing of sediments
Episodic disruptions
Earthquakes → soil erosion
Random disruptions
Tornado → downed trees

Earth’s climate has changed over time
Solar radiation increase
As the sun is closer = temperature increase
Amount of greenhouse gasses in the air
Example: CO2 gasses

Identify: carbon dioxide trends have fluctuated between 170-300 ppm for the past 700,000 years. It has recently risen exponentially (Industrial Revolution)
Interpret: has a hot/cold point every 100,000 years

Question 15

2.5 Video 2-Natural disruptions to Ecosystems

Answer 15

What is Migration: Seasonal movement of animals
Usually from one habitat to another
Why migrate? → adaptive response due to seasonal changes/mating opportunities
Who migrates? → several bird species (north to south hemisphere), monarch butterflies
Case study: polar bears

Cause of migration:
Migrate distances to find patches of sea ice (receding patches bc of global warming)
North in the spring and south in the fall

Key takeaway:
Wildlife migrates bc of natural and seasonal changes, but also human disruptions

Question 16

2.6 Video 1-Adaptations

Answer 16

Adaptation to environment:
Outward change in appearance (peppered moths)
Biochemical level (pesticide resistance)
Ones with pesticide resistance gene will develop and populate, ones without will not and this population will die off
Will pass on traits

Genetic diversity- raw material to which organisms adapt to their environment
Results from mutations as caused by environmental changes
Adapt over time in incremental levels

Question 17

2.6 Video 2-Adaptations

Answer 17

Loss of habitat case study Mt. St. Helens:
Large scale eruption (1980), massive landslides and habitat loss, wipeout of species (PRIMARY SUCCESSION)
Animals had to start from square 1

Drought case study Finches:

Key takeaways:
Habitat loss/change impacts a specie’s survival
Organisms with a selective advantage will adapt better

Question 18

2.7 Video 1 - Ecological Succession

Answer 18

Ecological Succession
Gradual process that describes change in the structure of a community over time; one type of community succeeds or replaces another
Typically characterized by changes in a predominant plant community; this leads to changes in and thus wildlife
Ecosystem engineers: organisms that create, change, or destroy a habitat
Mutualists: two species interact for the benefit of both
Indicator species:
Plant or animal that, by its presence, abundance, or scarcity, or chemical composition, demonstrates some distinctive aspect of the character or quality of an ecosystem is present
Typically have a narrow ecological tolerance (coral, indicates warmer temp)
Milkweed: indicators of ground level ozone pollution
Amphibians: indicators of estrogen like chemicals in the water
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Takeaways
First inhabitants after primary succession are pioneer species, lichens or other species that can survive in these barren conditions
Physical and chemical processes break down rock to form soil
Successive plant communities (grasses, to shrubs, to trees) modify the habitat by altering soil nutrients, amount of shade and habitat
This represents a stable and resilient community, better able to withstand disruptions

Question 19

2.7 Video 2-Ecological Succession

Answer 19

Ecological succession
Change in structure of an environmental community over time
When one community replaces or succeeds another

2 different types of ecological succession:
Primary
Bare rock, no soil, no life
PIONEER SPECIES (litchen, moss) break rocks and make way for herbaceous plants (grass, underbrush)
Nuclear explosions, asteroid impact, lava flows, retreating glaciers

Secondary
Lose some type of main vegetation
Not from square one
Forest fires, mining, over-extraction, tornadoes

KEYSTONE SPECIES (kelp, otters, sea urchins) species that has a significant role in an ecosystem
ECOSYSTEM ENGINEERS (bevers that take down trees) create, change or destroy a habitat
INDICATOR SPECIES (coral) indicate that demonstrates a specific aspect of a certain ecosystem, abundance/scarcity is indication of health of ecosystem

Key Takeaways:
Primary succession: bare rock, square one,
First inhabitants are pioneer species (lichens, moss), break down rock into soil
Successive plant communities replace one another, changing soil, shade, habitat
Resulting community is more RESISTANT TO CHANGE

Question 20

Biodiversity encompasses multiple levels

Answer 20

Biological diversity, or biodiversity, is the variety of life across all levels of biological organization
It includes diversity in genes, populations, species, communities, and ecosystems
The level of biodiversity that people find easiest to visualize and that we refer to most commonly is species diversity

Question 21

Biodiversity encompasses multiple levels: Species Diversity

Answer 21

A species is a distinct type of organism, a set of individuals that uniquely share certain characteristics and can breed with one another and produce fertile offspring
Species form by the process of speciation and may disappear by extinction
Species diversity describes the number or variety of species found in a particular region
One component of species diversity is species richness, the number of species inhabiting an area
Anther is evenness or relative abundance, the extent to which species in a given area differ in numbers of individuals (greater evenness means they differ less
Biodiversity exists below the species level in the form of subspecies, populations of a species that occur in different geographic areas and differ from one another in slight ways
Subspecies arise by the same processes that drive speciation but result when divergence stops short of forming separate species
As an example, black rhinoceros diversified into about 8 subspecies, each inhabiting a different part of Africa
Eastern black rhino, which is native to Kenya and Tanzania, differs slightly in its attributes form each of the other subspecies

Question 22

Biodiversity encompasses multiple levels: Genetic Diversity

Answer 22

Scientists designate subspecies when they recognize substantial genetically based differences among individuals from different populations of a species
However, all species consist of individuals that very genetically from one another to some degree, and this variation is another important component of biodiversity
Genetic diversity encompasses the differences in DNAc composition among individuals, and these differences provide the raw material for adaptation to local conditions
In the long term, populations with more genetic diversity may be more likely to persist, because their variation better enables them to cope with environmental change
Populations with little genetic diversity are vulnerable to environmental change if they lack genetic variants to help them adapt to changing conditions
Populations with low genetic diversity may also show less vigor, be more vulnerable to disease, and suffer inbreeding depression, which occurs when genetically similar individuals mate and produce weak or defective offspring
Scientists have sounded warnings over low genetic diversity in species that have dropped to low population sizes, including American bison, elephant seals, and the cheetahs of East AFrican plains
Diminished genetic diversity in our crop plants is a prime concern to humanity

Question 23

Biodiversity encompasses multiple levels: Ecosystem Diversity

Answer 23

The number and variety of ecosystems is referred to as ecosystem diversity, but biologists may also refer to the diversity of communities or habitats
Scientists may also consider the geographic arrangement of habitats, communities, or ecosystems across a landscape, including sizes and shapes of patches and the connections among them
Under any of these concepts, a seashore of beaches, forested cliffs, offshore coral reefs, and ocean waters would hold far more biodiversity than the same acreage of a monocultural cornfield
A mountain slope where vegetation changes with elevation frmo desert to forest to alpine meadow would hold more biodiversity than a flat area the same size consisting of only desert, forest, or meadow
The Serengeti region holds a diversity of habitats, including savanna, grassland, hilly woodlands, seasonal wetlands, and rock outcroppings
This habitat diversity contributes to the rich diversity of species in the region

Question 24

Biodiversity is unevenly distributed

Answer 24

Some groups of organisms include more species than others
For example, in numbers of species, insects show a staggering predominance over all other forms of life
Among insects, about 40% are beetles, and beetle species alone outnumber all non-insect animal species and all plant species
In some groups, large numbers of species formed rapidly as populations spread into a variety of environments and adapted to local conditions
Other groups diversified because of a tendency to become subdivided by barriers that promote speciation
Still other groups accumulated species through time because of low rates of extinction
Biodiversity is also greater in some places than in others
For instance, species richness generally increases as one approaches the equator
This pattern of variation with latitude, called the latitudinal gradient in species richness, is one of the most obvious patterns in ecology yet one of the most difficult for scientists to explain
Some believes this tendency is because of geographic area, arguing that the topics provide more romo for speciation
Some focus on solar energy, arguing that more plant growth makes reas nearer the equator more productive
Others focus on the relative stability of tropical climates, arguing that this discourages small numbers of generalist species from dominating ecosystems and instead allows numerous specialist species to coexist
Still others focus on history, arguing that polar and temperate regions are relatively species-poor because glaciation events repeatedly forced organisms out of these regions and toward tropical latitudes
Regardless of the explanation, the latitudinal gradient influences the species diversity of Earth’s biomes
Tropical dry forests and tropical rainforests support far more species than do tundra and boreal forests, for instance
Tropical biomes typically show more evenness as well, whereas in high-latitude biomes with low species richness, some species greatly outnumber others
Within given habitat, biodiversity varies according to the attributes of the habitat
Structurally diverse habitats tend to allow for more ecological niches and thereby support greater species richness and evenness
Ex. forests generally support more diversity than the open ocean
Each habitat supports a somewhat different mix of organisms
Because of this, ecotones (transition zones where habitats intermix) often tend to support high biodiversity
Likewise, for any given large region, species diversity tends to increase with diversity of habitats
Human disturbance often creates patchwork combinations of habitats at small scales, which increases habitat diversity locally
As a result, in moderately disturbed areas, species diversity tends to rise
However, at larger scales, human disturbance generally replaces a variety of regionally unique habitats with one or a few homogenized disturbed habitats
This reduction in habitat diversity results in a decrease in species diversity because it causes specialist species reliant on the regionally unique habitats to disappear, being replaced by a smaller variety of widespread generalist species
Moreover, species that rely on large expanses of habitat disappear when those habitats are fragmented by human disturbance

Question 25

Many species await discovery

Answer 25

Scientists have identified and described more than 1.8 million species, but total number that actually exists ranges from 3 million to 100 million, with the most widely accepted estimates around 10 million
Our knowledge of species numbers is incomplete because many species are tiny and easily overlooked (bacteria, fungi, protists, nematodes, and soil-dwelling arthropods), many organisms are difficult to identify (organisms thought of as the same species sometimes turn out to be dif species once examined more closely), and some areas of EArth remain little studied (ocean depths, hydrothermal vents, or tree canopies and soils of tropical forests)
Much or our knowledge about the world’s species comes from amateur naturalists
Such expert naturalists are contributing vast amounts of useful data to science through the pursuit of citizen science, the study and collection of data for scientific purposes by nonprofessional volunteers
Hundreds of parks, nature centers, agencies, and organizations host bioblitzes, events in which volunteers, with the help of experts, search for organisms and document biodiversity on a site by site basis
Digital technology opened up online communication, people

Question 26

Benefits of biodiversity

Answer 26

Biodiversity enhances food security
organisms provide drugs and medicines
Biodiversity provides ecosystem services
Biodiversity helps maintain functioning ecosystems
Biodiversity boosts economies through tourism and recreation
People value connections with nature
ethical obligations?

Question 27

Biodiversity enhances food security

Answer 27

Biodiversity provides the food we eat
Throughout history, humans have used at least 7000 plant species and several thousand animal species for food
Today, industrial agriculture has narrowed our diet
Globally, we now get 90% of out food from just 15 crop species and 8 livestock species, and this lack of diversity leaves us vulnerable to crop failures
We can improve food security by finding sustainable ways to harvest or farm wild species and rare crop varieties
The wild relatives of our crop plants should reservoirs of genetic diversity that can help protect the crops we grow in monocultures by providing helpful genes for cross-breeding or genetic engineering
We have already receive tens of billions of dollars’ worth of disease resistance from other wild relatives of potatoes, wheat, corn, barley, and other crops

Question 28

Organisms provide drugs and medicines

Answer 28

About half of today’s pharmaceuticals are derived from chemical compounds from wild plants
Ex. aspirin
World’s biodiversity holds a treasure chest of medicines yet to be discovered
Pharmaceutical companies hire scientists to engage in bioprospecting, searching for organisms that might provide new drugs, medicines, good, or other valuable products
There is urgency to this because a great deal of tradition knowledge of the attributes of local plants animals in species-rich tropical regions is being lost as communities indigenous people succumb to outside pressures from industrial world
Also, many animals that show promise are at risk of being lost to extinction before we can profit from what they have to offer

Question 29

Biodiversity provides ecosystem services

Answer 29

iodiversity helps:
Provide food, fuel, fiber, and shelter
Purify air and water
Detoxify and decompose wastes
Stabilize Earth’s climate
Moderate floods, droughts, and temperatures
Cycle nutrients and renew soil fertility
Pollinate plants, including many crops
Control pests and diseases
Maintain genetic resources for crop varieties, livestock breeds, and medicines
Provide cultural and aesthetic benefits
Organisms and ecosystems support vital processes that people cannot replicate or would need to pay for if nature didn’t provide them

Question 30

Biodiversity helps maintain functioning ecosystems

Answer 30

Biodiversity tends to enhance stability of communities and ecosystems,
Increases resilience of ecological systems, their ability to withstand disturbance, recover from stress, or adapt to change
When biodiversity is lost, this diminishes a natural system’s ability to function and provide services to our society
The loss of one or two or [insert small number there] species may not cause the ecosystem to fall apart, but as more species go extinct,t eh ecosystem will be compromised, and eventually the loss of just one more species will cause it to fail
Removing a keystone species such as a top predator can significantly alter an ecological system
Predators prey on herbivores that consume many plants
Removal of a top predator can have consequences that multiply as they cascade down the food chain
Losing an “ecosystem engineer” (like ants or earthworms) can have major effects
Ex. elephants eat ad trample many young plants, helping maintain open structure of savanna in Africa
When elephants are removed, landscape fills in with vegetation, converting savanna into dense scrub forest and affecting countless other species