ap unit 2 Flashcards
lateralization
there is some evidence that each brain hemisphere has its own distinct functions.
right hemisphere function
specializes in more widespread processing involving perception, visualizations, recognition of patterns, faces, emotions, melodies, and expressing emotions.
left hemisphere function
specializes in language, speech, handwriting, calculation, sense of time and rhythm, and any thought involving analysis.
lobes
areas of the cerebral cortex, location and primary function, each with a speciality
frontal lobe
areas of the cortex located in the front top of brain, associates with reasoning, motor skills (executive functions)
parietal lobe
sections of the brain located at the top back of each cerebral hemisphere (center for processing sensory signals)
occipital lobe
section of the brain located near the back bottom of each cerebral hemisphere containing visual centers of brain (left controls right eyes view, right controls left eyes view)
temporal lobe
areas of the cortex located just behind the temples (neurons responsible for sense of hearing and meaningful speech)
brain stem
most primitive part of the brain, base of brain connected to spinal cord, controls flow of messages from brain to body (controls basic functions like breathing, swallowing, heart rate, blood pressure, consciousness)
limbic system
network of structures located beneath the cerebral cortex, it coordinates fear and aggression (hunger and sex, and formation of episodic memories)
nervous system
body’s communication network that consists all nerve cells “body’s electrical wiring” (allows organisms to sense, organize, and react)
central nervous system
CNS, coordinates the actions and interactions of the brain and spinal cord, body’s main control center (largest part of nervous system, spinal cord is highway information connecting to peripheral nervous system to brain)
peripheral nervous system
PNS, includes the sensory nerves outside the brain and spinal cord that connects the CNS to the rest of the body (PNS connects the CNS to organs, limbs, and skin)
autonomic nervous system
regulates involuntary and unconscious actions such as breathing, pumping blood, digestion, heart beat, etc
sympathetic nervous system
emergency response system, if something alarms, enrages, or challenges you (accelerates your heart beat, increases blood pressure and sugar, alert and ready)
parasympathetic nervous system
functions to calm the person after a sympathetic nervous system exceeds (reduces energy, blood sugar, heart rate)
somatic nervous system
includes the nerves that transmit signals from your brain to the skeletal muscles to allow voluntary movement (helps for carrying sensory and motor information to and from CNS)
motor and sensory pathways (part of PNS)
Motor: signals from brain to muscles/glands (down movement), Sensory: signals from sensory receptors to the brain (up movement)
sensory neurons
Afferent Neurons, they carry information from the nerves to the CNS, allow us to take in sensory information and send it to the brain and spinal cord.
motor neurons
Efferent Neurons, carry information from the brain and spinal cord to muscle fibers throughout the body, allow us to take physical action in response to stimuli in the environment.
interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord that communicate internally and intervene between the sensory (inputs) and motor (outputs)
reflex arc
signals that are sent from a sensory organ to the spinal cord, which processes the information instead of passing it on to the brain
neuron
Nerve cell, specialized cell in the nervous system that receives and sends messages with electrochemical signals (chemicals stimulate the neuron, creates electricity and releases chemicals)
glial cell
provides physical support for the neurons to grow on and around, like glue (90% of brain is made up of glial cells, they give nutrients, clean, and insulate the neurons)
dendrites
Antena, part of the neuron, branch-like extensions that receives electrical messages from cells
soma (cell body)
Life Support, the cell body of the neuron responsible to maintain cell and keep neuron functional
axon
Talker, fiber that extends from the cell body to the terminal endings, carries messages to cells
myelin sheath
layer of fatty tissue produced by glial cells, wraps around the axon to protect the nerve fiber from damage (speeds up messages)
axon terminal
tips at the end of axon, sends signals to other neurons (very ends are terminal buttons/synaptic knobs)
receptor sites
receives signals, are the lock where the neurotransmitters molecule fits into (key)
synaptic vesicles
stores various transmitters (chemicals) that are released
synaptic gap/cleft
less than a millionth inch wide
synapse
Contact Point, meeting point between neurons, at the end of the terminal button is the gap known as synapse
excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitter
Excitatory excite connecting neurons and cause them to fire, more action potentials. Inhibitory prevent the next neurons from firing
acetylcholine
Movement and Memory (ACh), it’s the principal neurotransmitter involved in thought, learning, and memory. It’s involved in activating muscle action (excitatory)
serotonin
Mood, connected to feelings of wellbeing and happiness, it regulates sleep cycle with melatonin and regulates intestinal movements (inhibitory)
dopamine
Reward, pleasure chemical, related to reward and learning, motivational (inhibitory)
norepinephrine
Fight or Flight, associated with response to danger, attention and responding actions in brain, increased blood flow (excitatory)
GABA
Calming, slows things down, natural tranquilizer, helps control motor and vision skills, increased sleep, low anxiety and alertness (inhibitory)
glutamate
Memory, involved with thinking, long term memory, and learning (most common and major excitatory)
endorphins
Euphoria, relieves pain and stress, causes from exercise, excitement, and pain (inhibitory)
steps of neural firing
- Dendrites receive a chemical called a neurotransmitter (key)
- Chemicals go to receptor sites on the dendrite (lock)
- The receptor site will trigger the axon to let in positively charged sodium ions (selectively permeable membrane)
- The reaction between positive ions and the negative charged axon create an electrical charge (if no fire, it continues, if it fires then it stops)
- The charge hits the axon terminals and tells them to release a chemical (neurotransmitter)
- Chemicals will cross the synaptic gap and stimulate the dendrites and signal continues
- Reuptake, the neurotransmitter is destroyed and sent back to the start to become reused
action potential
a part of process that occurs during the firing of a neuron (neural membrane opens, negatively charged ions out and positively charged ions inside)
reuptake
after the transmitters stimulate receptors on the receiving neuron, the chemicals are taken back up into sending neuron to be used again (enzymes destroy the neurotransmitters, breaks it down)
threshold
level of stimulation that a cell body (soma) uses to decide whether to tell the axon to create electrical impulses
all or none principle
when a neuron fires, it’s either at full strength or not at all, the strength is always constant
endocrine system
contains of glands that secrete chemical messengers called hormones in your blood (essential for communication in body)
pituitary gland
Master Gland, pea sized structure located in the core of the brain, where it is controlled by an adjacent brain area (hypothalamus). Regulates stress, growth, and reproduction
thyroid gland
located inside the lower neck, secretes a hormone called thyroxin, regulates metabolism, growth, and appetite. (if damaged it can give poor sleep, fatigue and depression
pineal gland
located in the back of brain, secretes a hormone called melatonin which regulates sleep and body rhythms
adrenal gland
two glands on top of each kidney in charge of stress response, releases epinephrine and norepinephrine (adrenaline) to help sympathetic arousal. Increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood sugar (surge in energy)
gonads
sex glands, including the ovaries for females and testis for males, regulates sex hormones, behavior, and sex characteristics (aggression). Estrogen in women and testosterone in men
hormones
Chemical messengers, produced in endocrine glands and are secreted into the bloodstream (slower to take effect, long lasting) can be chemically identical to neurotransmitters
melatonin
a hormone known to help regulate sleep and wake cycles, released by pineal gland into bloodstream when in sleep
testosterone
a male sex hormone and most potent of the androgens produced by the testes, gives aggression and male behaviors
estrogen
a woman sex hormone, it helps with female sex characteristics and mainly stronger when in ovulation
oxytocin
powerful hormone that acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain, regulates social interaction and sexual reproduction (love hormone, physical touch)
epinephrine
Adrenaline, hormone produced in high stress or excited situation, physical boosts, and high awareness (increases heart rate, contracts blood vessel and dilate airways to increase blood flow and oxygen)
cortisol
body’s main stress hormone, works with certain parts of your brain to control your mood, motivation, and fear (important for relaxation response to activate after)
brain autopsy
examination of brain tissue after death, only definitive way to diagnose the specific neurodegenerative disorder of an individual
prefrontal lobotomy
operation that removes parts of the brain to control behavior, disconnects the prefrontal cortex from the rest of brain (developed in 1930, nobel prize for treatment of schizophrenia in 1949)
hemispherectomy
brain surgery used to treat behavioral disorders or illnesses, removal of one of the halves of the brain (controls seizures)
brain scanning
not used to treat disorders rather provide information of structure and activity in brain
electroencephalograph (EEG)
measurement of the electrical activity of the brain by recording from electrodes placed on scalp (effects can be sleep, seizures and even tumors)
computer tomography (CT or CAT scan)
2D x-ray photograms from different angles used to create a 3D representation of the brain (identify muscle or bone disorder, used in emergency rooms, can see major structural problems)
magnetic resonance imagine (MRI)
brain imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce three dimensional detailed images of brain (better resolution than CAT scan)
functional MRI
measuring brain activity, detects changes in blood oxygenation and flow that occurs in response to neural activity (more oxygen means more activity) high resolution structural images
positron emission tomography (PET scan)
uses trace amounts of short lived radioactive material to map functional processes in the brain, like glucose (detects total energy brain uses in an activity)
neuroplasticity
the ability to constantly change both the structure and function of many cells in the brain in response to experience and even trauma (resistant to damage)
functional plasticity
brain’s ability to move functions from a damaged area to other undamaged areas
structural plasticity
the brain’s ability to actually change its physical structure as a result of learning
split brain
two hemispheres of the brain communicate through corpus callosum, without it, they can’t communicate and become independent of each other, without awareness (Roger Sperry and Miceal Gazzaniga studied split brain patients)
evolutionary psychology
study how natural selection favored behaviors that contributed to survival and the spread of our ancestors genes (contributes to next generation, combines psychology and biology)
charles darwins theory of natural selection
heritable characteristics that provide a survival or reproductive advantage are more likely than other characteristics to be passed on to the next generation (takes millions of years and generations to let trait be selected over another)
psychological adaption
development or change of mechanisms in the mind (food, habitat, and mate preferences)
