ap bio 1-8 Flashcards
What are the 4 macromolecules?
Carbs, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acids
Mnemonic: “Can Little Penguins Nap?”
What makes carbon ideal for building biological macromolecules?
It has 4 valence electrons, allowing it to form 4 covalent bonds, creating complex structures.
🧠 Mnemonic: “Carbon Connects Creatively!”
Difference between dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis?
Dehydration: Removes water to build polymers.
Hydrolysis: Adds water to break polymers.
🧠 Mnemonic: “Dry to build, hydrate to break.”
Protein levels of structure?
Primary: amino acid sequence
Secondary: alpha helix or beta sheet (H-bonds)
Tertiary: 3D folding (R-group interactions)
Quaternary: Multiple polypeptides
🧠 Mnemonic: “Pretty Silly Teens Quit”
How do prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells differ?
Prokaryotes: no nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles
Eukaryotes: nucleus, complex organelles
🧠 Mnemonic: “Pro = No, Eu = Do”
Role of the rough ER vs. smooth ER?
Rough ER: Protein synthesis (ribosomes)
Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis, detoxification
🧠 Mnemonic: “Rough = Ribs (ribosomes), Smooth = Soapy (lipids)”
Why is surface area-to-volume ratio important?
Higher SA:V allows more efficient exchange of materials with the environment. Small cells are more efficient.
What factors affect enzyme activity?
Temperature, pH, substrate concentration, inhibitors.
What’s the purpose of ATP?
Stores and transfers energy for cellular processes.
Where does each stage of cellular respiration occur?
Glycolysis: Cytoplasm
Krebs cycle: Mitochondrial matrix
ETC: Inner mitochondrial membrane
🧠 Mnemonic: “Glycolysis Cyto, Krebs Matrix, ETC Membrane”
Difference between aerobic and anaerobic respiration?
Aerobic uses O₂ and makes ~36 ATP; anaerobic doesn’t use O₂ and makes only 2 ATP.
What are ligands?
Signaling molecules that bind to receptors and trigger a response.
What are second messengers?
They are small molecules inside the cell that help pass on a signal that came from outside the cell.
like cAMP
What regulates the cell cycle?and what are the 3 checkpoints?
Cyclins and CDKs; they act like “go-ahead” signals at checkpoints.
There are 3 major checkpoints:
G1 Checkpoint: Should we start dividing?
G2 Checkpoint: Did we copy the DNA correctly?
M Checkpoint: Are the chromosomes lined up properly to split?
f the clock hits the right time (cyclin present), the key (CDK) can unlock the next stage of the cell cycle.
Apoptosis vs. cancer?
poptosis: programmed cell death (good)
Cancer: uncontrolled cell division (bad)
What’s the Law of Segregation?
Alleles separate during meiosis so each gamete gets one allele.
During meiosis, the two alleles you have for a trait separate, so that each gamete (egg or sperm) gets only one of them.
What’s the Law of Independent Assortment?
Genes on different chromosomes are inherited independently.
Getting one gene (like eye color) doesn’t affect which version you get of another gene (like hair color).
How do you use a chi-square test in genetics?
To test if observed results differ significantly from expected ratios.
Genotype vs. phenotype?
Genotype = genetic makeup (Aa, aa)
Phenotype = physical traits (blue eyes)
what enzymes are involved in DNA replication?
Helicase: Unzips DNA
DNA polymerase: Builds new strand 🧱 The bricklayer
Ligase: Seals fragments🪚 The glue gun / seam sealer
What happens during transcription and translation?
Transcription: DNA → mRNA (in nucleus)
Translation: mRNA → protein (at ribosome)
What’s an operon?
Group of genes in bacteria controlled by one promoter (e.g., lac operon).
PROG” = Promoter, Repressor, Operator, Genes
🎶 “An operon has PROG, like a bacterial rock band” 🎸
Each player has a role:
Promoter = manager (starts the show)
Repressor = bouncer (can block the door)
Operator = door (lets RNA polymerase through)
Genes = performers (do the job)
Types of gene mutations?
Silent: no effect
Missense: changes amino acid
Nonsense: premature stop
Frameshift: insertion/deletion shifts codons
What are the 5 pieces of evidence for evolution?
Fossils, anatomy, molecular biology, embryology, biogeography
🧠 Mnemonic: “FAME-B”
What’s genetic drift?
Random change in allele frequencies, stronger in small populations (e.g., bottleneck, founder effect)
not caused by natural selection.
Think: luck, not fitness.
bottleneck: rebuild the population, but with less genetic variation than before.
founder effect: Small group colonizes new area Founders’ traits shape future pop.
Types of reproductive isolation?
Prezygotic: before fertilization (temporal, behavioral)
Postzygotic: after (infertile offspring)
What’s the 10% rule?
Only 10% of energy transfers to the next trophic level; the rest is lost as heat.
: What’s carrying capacity?
Maximum number of individuals an environment can support.
Types of population growth?
Exponential: J-curve
Logistic: S-curve (with carrying capacity)
Biogeochemical cycles to know?
Carbon: photosynthesis & respiration
Nitrogen: fixation → assimilation → decomposition
Water: evaporation → condensation → precipitation
