AOS 2 - How do people learn & remember Flashcards
Neural plasticity
Is the ability of the brain’s neural structure or function to be changed by experience through the lifespan
Hebbs rule
- proposed that learning results in the creation of cell assemblies
- when neurotransmitters are repeatedly sent across the synaptic gap pre & postsynaptic neurons are repeatedly activated at the same time
- changes structure of synapse strengthening neuron connection
- when the connection is strengthened ‘neurons that fire together wire together
Long term potentiation
Refers to the long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections resulting in enhanced or more effective synaptic transmission
Long term depression
The opposite of LTP, LTD is a long-lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission
Neurohormones
Are chemical messengers that are manufactured by neurons & released from axon terminals
Neurotransmitters vs neurohormones
NT - sent to adjacent neurons
- excitatory or inhibitory
- immediate effects are more short-lived
NH - released into BS before being carried to other neurons & cells
- don’t have an excitatory or inhibitory distinction
- act for longer periods of time
Role of glutamate in synaptic plasticity
Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter which makes the post-synaptic neuron be more likely to fire (1 mark)
Generally, the more times that Glutamate can excite an adjacent neuron, the more likely those neurons are to be ‘wired’ together and their connection strengthened, firing in the future (1 mark)
This shows the change in synapses necessary to demonstrate synaptic plasticity, because the synapses are changing
Consolidation
The biological process of making a newly formed memory stable & enduring after learning
Reconsolidation
Whenever a memory is retrieved its opened to further consolidation & has to be ‘restabilized’ through the process called reconsolidation
- initial rapid process for temporary storage
- followed by a slower, more permanent process for long term storage
Role of adrenaline
Can enhance the consolidation of long-term memories of emotionally arousing experiences, which means these types of experiences are more likely to be remembered.
Noradrenaline
The presence of noradrenaline during consolidation may activate the amygdala to signal the hippocampus to strengthen the experience into its long term storage
Unconditioned stimulus
Any stimulus that consistently produces a particular naturally-occurring automatic response
Neutral stimulus
Any object or event that doesn’t normally produce a predictable response
Conditioned stimulus
The stimulus that is neural at the start of the conditioning process & doesn’t normally produce the UR but eventually becomes associated with UCS & elicits a CR
Unconditioned response
The response that occurs naturally when UCS is present
Conditioned response
Is the learned or acquired response to CS
Before conditioning
NS produces no relevant response. That is only UCS elicits UCR
During conditioning
NS repeatedly paired with UCS to produce UCR. During conditioning we learn to associate stimuli passively
After conditioning
Overtime begins to associate NS & UCS. The once NS has now become a CS. Thus, CS produces a CR
Acquisition
A term used to describe the overall process when an organism learns to associate two events
Trials
Each paired presentation of the NS with the UCS is referred to as a trial
Stimulus generalisation
The tendency for another stimulus (one that’s similar to the original CS) to produce a response that’s similar but not necessarily identical to CR
Stimulus discrimination
Occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only but not to any other stimulus that’s similar to CS
Extinction
A conditioned stimulus-response association isn’t necessarily permanent. The strength of the association may fade over time or disappear altogether
Spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented following a rest period
Operant conditioning
A type of learning whereby the consequences of the behavior determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future
Operant
An operant is any response that acts on the environment to produce some kind of consequence
Antecedent
The antecedent is the stimulus that
- precedes a specific behavior
- signals probable consequences for behavior & thus influences the occurrence of behavior
Behavior
The voluntary action that occurs in the presence of the antecedent stimulus
Consequence
The consequence is the environmental event that occurs immediately after the behaviors & has an effect on the occurrence of the behavior
Reinforcement
When a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that follows
Positive reinforcement
A stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of the desired response by providing a satisfying consequence
= adding something pleasant
Negative reinforcement
Any unpleasant stimulus that, when removed or avoided strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of the desired response
= subtracting something unpleasant
Punishment
The delivery of an unpleasant consequence or the removal of a pleasant consequence following a response
Positive punishment
Involves presentation of an unpleasant stimulus thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again
Negative punishment
Involves removal or loss of a pleasant stimulus & thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again
- response cost = involves the removal of any valued stimulus whether or not causes behavior
OC vs CC
Unlike classical conditioning process which involves involuntary reflexive responses that are automatically elicited by a stimulus operant conditioning involves voluntary responses
Little Albert experiment
Before conditioning (NS) white rat, steel bar hit with a hammer (UCS) eliciting fear (UCR) During conditioning NS + UCS = UCR After conditioning CS (rat) = CR (fear)
Ethical implications
- Albert was subjected to severe distress & anxiety & the experiments made no attempt to end the experiment & appropriately attend to his distress
- Its believed that Alberts’s mum may not have been fully aware that her son was to be used in an experiment on conditioning fear response (informed consent)
Observational learning
Occurs when someone uses observation of a model’s actions & the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions.
Bandura’s social learning theory
Through observation, we learn many behaviours not by actually carrying out the behaviour & experiencing the consequences but simply by watching the behaviour & its consequences being experienced by someone else
Vicarious conditioning
The individual watches a model’s behavior is either reinforced or punished & then subsequently behaves in exactly the same way or in a modified way or refrains from the behavior as a result of what they have observed
Vicarious reinforcement
Increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behavior is reinforced
Vicarious punishment
It occurs when the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behavior decreases after having seen a model’s behavior being modified
- Attention
Learners pay attention in order to observe the behavior
- Retention
Leaner mentally represents & retains what’s been observed
- Reproduction
Depending on their physical capabilities learner converts the mental representation into action
- Motivation/Reinforcement
Learners must be motivated to reproduce, reinforcement influences motivation to perform the observed behavior
Reinforcement ( OL)
Self-reinforcement - occurs when we are reinforced by meeting specific standards of performance we set for ourselves
External reinforcement - is comparable to learning by consequences
Bandura cognitive representations
Bandura proposes in his social learning theory that when observers pay attention to something around them, they form cognitive representations of what they observe
Acquisition & performance of learned response
People can acquire & store many behavioral responses learned by observation. We also learn by observation whether or not a particular behavior is likely to be rewarded
Memory
Memory is the processing, storage & retrieval of information acquired through learning
- Encoding
Conversion of info into a usable form so that it can be neurologically represented & stored in memory
- Storage
Retention of the encoded information over time
- Retrieval
Recovery of stored info & bringing into conscious awareness for use when needed
Sensory memory
Is the entry point of memory where now incoming sensory info is stored for a very brief period
- temporary storage system for information
Sensory memory (function, duration, capacity)
Function - The entry point of sensory info from the environment
Duration - momentary 0.2 - 4 seconds
Capacity - vast, potentially unlimited
Iconic memory - SM
Is used to describe visual sensory memory
Echoic memory - SM
Echoic memory is used to describe auditory sensory memory
Short term memory
Is a memory system with limited storage capacity in which information is stored for a relatively short time unless renewed in some way
Short term memory (function, duration, capacity)
Function - info received into STM is processed & stored for a brief period unless a conscious effort is made to keep it there longer
Duration - after about 12 seconds recall starts to decline
Capacity - 7 + 2 (5 - 9 items at once)
Working memory
As our working memory STM enables us to actively work on & manipulate info while we undertake our everyday tasks
Long term memory
Stores a potentially unlimited amount of info for a very long time
Long term memory (function, duration, capacity)
Function - responsible for the storage of info for an extended period of time
Duration - indefinite, possibly permanent
Capacity - unlimited
Explicit memory - LTM
Involves memory that occurs when info can be consciously or intentionally retrieved & stated
- Episodic memory - EM
The memory of personally experienced events
- Semantic memory - EM
The memory of facts & knowledge about the world
Implicit memory - LTM
Involves memory without awareness
- Procedural memory - IM
The memory of motor skills & actions that have been learned previously
- Classically condtioned memory - IM
Condtioned responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning are also considered to be a type of implicit memory, particularly those involving fear or anxiety
Role of the cerebral cortex
Primarily involved in storing LTM, their permanent storage tends to be in the areas where relevant info was first processed
Role of the hippocampus
Located in the middle of the brain & is primarily involved in encoding explicit memories. Crucial in the consolidation of new semantic & episodic memories so they are neurologically stable & long-lasting. Doesn’t store any explicit memories but processes them, then transfers them to the cerebral cortex
Role of amygdala
Often described as the structure most responsible for emotional memory due to being heavily involved in strengthening emotional memories & contributing to them being encoded in vivid detail
Role of the cerebellum
The cerebellum is a structure located at the base of the brain, it’s involved in encoding implicit memories, particularly procedural memory
Recall
Recall refers to the process of retrieving previously learned info from LTM
- Free recall
Involves reproducing as much info as possible in no particular order without the use of any specific cue
- Serial recall
Involves reproducing info in the order in which it was learned
- Cued recall
Involves use of specific prompts to aid retrieval & thus reproduction of required info
Recognition
Involves identifying originally learned info
Relearning
Involves learning info again that has been previously learned (and was thus stored in the LTM)
Sensitivity of retrieval methods
Relearning (most)
Recognition
Recall
Reconstruction of memory
Generally involves combining stored info with other available info to form what’s believed to be a more coherent complete or accurate memory
Errors in reconstruction
- LTM is encoded & stored in various parts of the brain
- When we access this LTM retrieve the encoded version
Brain trauma
Refers to a brain injury that is acquired after birth & impairs the normal functioning of the brain
Amnesia
Used to refer to the loss of memory that is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting
Anterograde amnesia
If brain trauma causes loss of memory for info or events after trauma occurs its called anterograde amnesia
- cannot remember whats happened since injury
Brain surgery hippocampus
STM - none Semnatic - formation of new semnatic memories & their transfer to the cerebral cortex for storage may be affected (no consolidation) Episodic - "" Procedural - none CC - none
Brain surgery amygdala
STM - none
Semnatic - primarily affects emotional memories
Episodic - “”
Procedural - no effect
CC - may be unable to acuire a conditioned fear response
Brain surgery cerebral cortex
STM - may impair the transfer of info into & out of STM especially if damage to the prefrontal cortex or regions involved in attention
Semnatic - may disrupt long term storage & retrieval of semantic memories
Episodic - may disrupt LT storage or retrieval of episodic memories
Procedural - no effect unless motor cortex damaged
CC - depend on nature
Brain surgery cerebellum
STM - none
Semnatic - none
Episodic - none
Procedural - possible impairment to the procedural component of complex motor patterns
CC - loss of ability to acquire store or retrieve conditioned responses involving very specific reflex movements
Neurodegenerative disease
A disorder characterized by the progressive decline in the structure, activity & function of brain tissue
Alzheimer’s disease
A type of dementia characterized by the gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline deterioration of cognitive & social skills & personality changes
Plaques
Fragments of the protein beta-amyloid & in a healthy brain the protein is broken down & eliminated
Neurofibrillary tangles
Look like twisted fibers & inhibit the transport of essential substances through the neuron
Context dependant cues
Are aspects of the physical environment where a memory is recalled that match the environment where the memory was originally formed & encoded
State dependant cues
Are aspects of an individuals psychological or physiological state when a memory was formed
Rehearsal
The process of consciously manipulating info to keep it in the STM to transfer it to LTM or to aid storage & retrieval
Maintenance rehearsal
Involves repeating new info over & over again to functionally enhance duration of STM
Elaborative rehearsal
Involves repeating & linking new info to previously learned info thats already stored in LTM
Serial position effect
A psychological concept that links the effectiveness of memory recall to its position when it was presented within a list of items
Loftus experiment
- A leading question is phrased in a way to get a desired answer and may contain a presupposition.
- Loftus found that by changing the verb, smashed, collided, bumped in the question ‘how fast was the car going when it ‘’ into each other?’
- changed the estimated speed of the car from participants. Eyewitness testimony isn’t always accurate
