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Psychology > AOS 2 - How do people learn & remember > Flashcards

AOS 2 - How do people learn & remember Flashcards

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1
Q

Neural plasticity

A

Is the ability of the brain’s neural structure or function to be changed by experience through the lifespan

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2
Q

Hebbs rule

A
  • proposed that learning results in the creation of cell assemblies
  • when neurotransmitters are repeatedly sent across the synaptic gap pre & postsynaptic neurons are repeatedly activated at the same time
  • changes structure of synapse strengthening neuron connection
  • when the connection is strengthened ‘neurons that fire together wire together
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3
Q

Long term potentiation

A

Refers to the long-lasting strengthening of synaptic connections resulting in enhanced or more effective synaptic transmission

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4
Q

Long term depression

A

The opposite of LTP, LTD is a long-lasting decrease in the strength of synaptic transmission

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5
Q

Neurohormones

A

Are chemical messengers that are manufactured by neurons & released from axon terminals

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6
Q

Neurotransmitters vs neurohormones

A

NT - sent to adjacent neurons

  • excitatory or inhibitory
  • immediate effects are more short-lived

NH - released into BS before being carried to other neurons & cells

  • don’t have an excitatory or inhibitory distinction
  • act for longer periods of time
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7
Q

Role of glutamate in synaptic plasticity

A

Glutamate is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter which makes the post-synaptic neuron be more likely to fire (1 mark)

Generally, the more times that Glutamate can excite an adjacent neuron, the more likely those neurons are to be ‘wired’ together and their connection strengthened, firing in the future (1 mark)

This shows the change in synapses necessary to demonstrate synaptic plasticity, because the synapses are changing

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8
Q

Consolidation

A

The biological process of making a newly formed memory stable & enduring after learning

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9
Q

Reconsolidation

A

Whenever a memory is retrieved its opened to further consolidation & has to be ‘restabilized’ through the process called reconsolidation

  1. initial rapid process for temporary storage
  2. followed by a slower, more permanent process for long term storage
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10
Q

Role of adrenaline

A

Can enhance the consolidation of long-term memories of emotionally arousing experiences, which means these types of experiences are more likely to be remembered.

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11
Q

Noradrenaline

A

The presence of noradrenaline during consolidation may activate the amygdala to signal the hippocampus to strengthen the experience into its long term storage

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12
Q

Unconditioned stimulus

A

Any stimulus that consistently produces a particular naturally-occurring automatic response

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13
Q

Neutral stimulus

A

Any object or event that doesn’t normally produce a predictable response

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14
Q

Conditioned stimulus

A

The stimulus that is neural at the start of the conditioning process & doesn’t normally produce the UR but eventually becomes associated with UCS & elicits a CR

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15
Q

Unconditioned response

A

The response that occurs naturally when UCS is present

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16
Q

Conditioned response

A

Is the learned or acquired response to CS

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17
Q

Before conditioning

A

NS produces no relevant response. That is only UCS elicits UCR

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18
Q

During conditioning

A

NS repeatedly paired with UCS to produce UCR. During conditioning we learn to associate stimuli passively

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19
Q

After conditioning

A

Overtime begins to associate NS & UCS. The once NS has now become a CS. Thus, CS produces a CR

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20
Q

Acquisition

A

A term used to describe the overall process when an organism learns to associate two events

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21
Q

Trials

A

Each paired presentation of the NS with the UCS is referred to as a trial

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22
Q

Stimulus generalisation

A

The tendency for another stimulus (one that’s similar to the original CS) to produce a response that’s similar but not necessarily identical to CR

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23
Q

Stimulus discrimination

A

Occurs when a person or animal responds to the CS only but not to any other stimulus that’s similar to CS

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24
Q

Extinction

A

A conditioned stimulus-response association isn’t necessarily permanent. The strength of the association may fade over time or disappear altogether

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25
Q

Spontaneous recovery

A

The reappearance of a CR when the CS is presented following a rest period

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26
Q

Operant conditioning

A

A type of learning whereby the consequences of the behavior determine the likelihood that it will be performed again in the future

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27
Q

Operant

A

An operant is any response that acts on the environment to produce some kind of consequence

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28
Q

Antecedent

A

The antecedent is the stimulus that

  • precedes a specific behavior
  • signals probable consequences for behavior & thus influences the occurrence of behavior
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29
Q

Behavior

A

The voluntary action that occurs in the presence of the antecedent stimulus

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30
Q

Consequence

A

The consequence is the environmental event that occurs immediately after the behaviors & has an effect on the occurrence of the behavior

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31
Q

Reinforcement

A

When a stimulus strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of a response that follows

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32
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

A stimulus that strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of the desired response by providing a satisfying consequence
= adding something pleasant

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33
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

Any unpleasant stimulus that, when removed or avoided strengthens or increases the frequency or likelihood of the desired response
= subtracting something unpleasant

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34
Q

Punishment

A

The delivery of an unpleasant consequence or the removal of a pleasant consequence following a response

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35
Q

Positive punishment

A

Involves presentation of an unpleasant stimulus thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again

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36
Q

Negative punishment

A

Involves removal or loss of a pleasant stimulus & thereby decreasing the likelihood of a response occurring again

  • response cost = involves the removal of any valued stimulus whether or not causes behavior
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37
Q

OC vs CC

A

Unlike classical conditioning process which involves involuntary reflexive responses that are automatically elicited by a stimulus operant conditioning involves voluntary responses

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38
Q

Little Albert experiment

A 
Before conditioning 
(NS) white rat, steel bar hit with a hammer (UCS) eliciting fear (UCR) 
During conditioning 
NS + UCS = UCR 
After conditioning 
CS (rat) = CR (fear)
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39
Q

Ethical implications

A
  • Albert was subjected to severe distress & anxiety & the experiments made no attempt to end the experiment & appropriately attend to his distress
  • Its believed that Alberts’s mum may not have been fully aware that her son was to be used in an experiment on conditioning fear response (informed consent)
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40
Q

Observational learning

A

Occurs when someone uses observation of a model’s actions & the consequences of those actions to guide their future actions.

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41
Q

Bandura’s social learning theory

A

Through observation, we learn many behaviours not by actually carrying out the behaviour & experiencing the consequences but simply by watching the behaviour & its consequences being experienced by someone else

42
Q

Vicarious conditioning

A

The individual watches a model’s behavior is either reinforced or punished & then subsequently behaves in exactly the same way or in a modified way or refrains from the behavior as a result of what they have observed

43
Q

Vicarious reinforcement

A

Increases the likelihood of the observer behaving in a similar way to a model whose behavior is reinforced

44
Q

Vicarious punishment

A

It occurs when the likelihood of an observer performing a particular behavior decreases after having seen a model’s behavior being modified

45
Q
  1. Attention
A

Learners pay attention in order to observe the behavior

46
Q
  1. Retention
A

Leaner mentally represents & retains what’s been observed

47
Q
  1. Reproduction
A

Depending on their physical capabilities learner converts the mental representation into action

48
Q
  1. Motivation/Reinforcement
A

Learners must be motivated to reproduce, reinforcement influences motivation to perform the observed behavior

49
Q

Reinforcement ( OL)

A

Self-reinforcement - occurs when we are reinforced by meeting specific standards of performance we set for ourselves
External reinforcement - is comparable to learning by consequences

50
Q

Bandura cognitive representations

A

Bandura proposes in his social learning theory that when observers pay attention to something around them, they form cognitive representations of what they observe

51
Q

Acquisition & performance of learned response

A

People can acquire & store many behavioral responses learned by observation. We also learn by observation whether or not a particular behavior is likely to be rewarded

52
Q

Memory

A

Memory is the processing, storage & retrieval of information acquired through learning

53
Q
  1. Encoding
A

Conversion of info into a usable form so that it can be neurologically represented & stored in memory

54
Q
  1. Storage
A

Retention of the encoded information over time

55
Q
  1. Retrieval
A

Recovery of stored info & bringing into conscious awareness for use when needed

56
Q

Sensory memory

A

Is the entry point of memory where now incoming sensory info is stored for a very brief period
- temporary storage system for information

57
Q

Sensory memory (function, duration, capacity)

A

Function - The entry point of sensory info from the environment
Duration - momentary 0.2 - 4 seconds
Capacity - vast, potentially unlimited

58
Q

Iconic memory - SM

A

Is used to describe visual sensory memory

59
Q

Echoic memory - SM

A

Echoic memory is used to describe auditory sensory memory

60
Q

Short term memory

A

Is a memory system with limited storage capacity in which information is stored for a relatively short time unless renewed in some way

61
Q

Short term memory (function, duration, capacity)

A

Function - info received into STM is processed & stored for a brief period unless a conscious effort is made to keep it there longer
Duration - after about 12 seconds recall starts to decline
Capacity - 7 + 2 (5 - 9 items at once)

62
Q

Working memory

A

As our working memory STM enables us to actively work on & manipulate info while we undertake our everyday tasks

63
Q

Long term memory

A

Stores a potentially unlimited amount of info for a very long time

64
Q

Long term memory (function, duration, capacity)

A

Function - responsible for the storage of info for an extended period of time
Duration - indefinite, possibly permanent
Capacity - unlimited

65
Q

Explicit memory - LTM

A

Involves memory that occurs when info can be consciously or intentionally retrieved & stated

66
Q
  1. Episodic memory - EM
A

The memory of personally experienced events

67
Q
  1. Semantic memory - EM
A

The memory of facts & knowledge about the world

68
Q

Implicit memory - LTM

A

Involves memory without awareness

69
Q
  1. Procedural memory - IM
A

The memory of motor skills & actions that have been learned previously

70
Q
  1. Classically condtioned memory - IM
A

Condtioned responses to conditioned stimuli acquired through classical conditioning are also considered to be a type of implicit memory, particularly those involving fear or anxiety

71
Q

Role of the cerebral cortex

A

Primarily involved in storing LTM, their permanent storage tends to be in the areas where relevant info was first processed

72
Q

Role of the hippocampus

A

Located in the middle of the brain & is primarily involved in encoding explicit memories. Crucial in the consolidation of new semantic & episodic memories so they are neurologically stable & long-lasting. Doesn’t store any explicit memories but processes them, then transfers them to the cerebral cortex

73
Q

Role of amygdala

A

Often described as the structure most responsible for emotional memory due to being heavily involved in strengthening emotional memories & contributing to them being encoded in vivid detail

74
Q

Role of the cerebellum

A

The cerebellum is a structure located at the base of the brain, it’s involved in encoding implicit memories, particularly procedural memory

75
Q

Recall

A

Recall refers to the process of retrieving previously learned info from LTM

76
Q
  1. Free recall
A

Involves reproducing as much info as possible in no particular order without the use of any specific cue

77
Q
  1. Serial recall
A

Involves reproducing info in the order in which it was learned

78
Q
  1. Cued recall
A

Involves use of specific prompts to aid retrieval & thus reproduction of required info

79
Q

Recognition

A

Involves identifying originally learned info

80
Q

Relearning

A

Involves learning info again that has been previously learned (and was thus stored in the LTM)

81
Q

Sensitivity of retrieval methods

A

Relearning (most)
Recognition
Recall

82
Q

Reconstruction of memory

A

Generally involves combining stored info with other available info to form what’s believed to be a more coherent complete or accurate memory

83
Q

Errors in reconstruction

A
  • LTM is encoded & stored in various parts of the brain

- When we access this LTM retrieve the encoded version

84
Q

Brain trauma

A

Refers to a brain injury that is acquired after birth & impairs the normal functioning of the brain

85
Q

Amnesia

A

Used to refer to the loss of memory that is inconsistent with ordinary forgetting

86
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

If brain trauma causes loss of memory for info or events after trauma occurs its called anterograde amnesia
- cannot remember whats happened since injury

87
Q

Brain surgery hippocampus

A 
STM - none 
Semnatic - formation of new semnatic memories & their transfer to the cerebral cortex for storage may be affected (no consolidation) 
Episodic - ""
Procedural - none 
CC - none
88
Q

Brain surgery amygdala

A

STM - none
Semnatic - primarily affects emotional memories
Episodic - “”
Procedural - no effect
CC - may be unable to acuire a conditioned fear response

89
Q

Brain surgery cerebral cortex

A

STM - may impair the transfer of info into & out of STM especially if damage to the prefrontal cortex or regions involved in attention
Semnatic - may disrupt long term storage & retrieval of semantic memories
Episodic - may disrupt LT storage or retrieval of episodic memories
Procedural - no effect unless motor cortex damaged
CC - depend on nature

90
Q

Brain surgery cerebellum

A

STM - none
Semnatic - none
Episodic - none
Procedural - possible impairment to the procedural component of complex motor patterns
CC - loss of ability to acquire store or retrieve conditioned responses involving very specific reflex movements

91
Q

Neurodegenerative disease

A

A disorder characterized by the progressive decline in the structure, activity & function of brain tissue

92
Q

Alzheimer’s disease

A

A type of dementia characterized by the gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, progressively causing memory decline deterioration of cognitive & social skills & personality changes

93
Q

Plaques

A

Fragments of the protein beta-amyloid & in a healthy brain the protein is broken down & eliminated

94
Q

Neurofibrillary tangles

A

Look like twisted fibers & inhibit the transport of essential substances through the neuron

95
Q

Context dependant cues

A

Are aspects of the physical environment where a memory is recalled that match the environment where the memory was originally formed & encoded

96
Q

State dependant cues

A

Are aspects of an individuals psychological or physiological state when a memory was formed

97
Q

Rehearsal

A

The process of consciously manipulating info to keep it in the STM to transfer it to LTM or to aid storage & retrieval

98
Q

Maintenance rehearsal

A

Involves repeating new info over & over again to functionally enhance duration of STM

99
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

Involves repeating & linking new info to previously learned info thats already stored in LTM

100
Q

Serial position effect

A

A psychological concept that links the effectiveness of memory recall to its position when it was presented within a list of items

101
Q

Loftus experiment

A
  • A leading question is phrased in a way to get a desired answer and may contain a presupposition.
  • Loftus found that by changing the verb, smashed, collided, bumped in the question ‘how fast was the car going when it ‘’ into each other?’
  • changed the estimated speed of the car from participants. Eyewitness testimony isn’t always accurate

Psychology (6 decks)

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