Antarctica Flashcards
Climate
Average temperature is -49C but can reach -89C in the interior
Mean annual wind speed is 50mph, gusts can reach 200mph
<50mm of precipitation per year
Physical geography
97% covered by ice
Divided into East and West, split by the Transantarctic range
Mt. Vinson - 4,900, Mt. Erebus
Average 2300m above sea level
Nunatuks
Mountain peaks protruding over the ice sheet
Antarctic Convergence Zone
Curve continuously encircling Antarctica where cold northward flowing waters meet the relatively warmer waters of the sub-Atlantic and sink
Causes upwelling, bringing nutrients from the sea floor
Antarctic Circumpolar Current
Essentially blocks warmer from travelling southwards. Flows in an eastward direction driven by westerly winds
Threats to Antarctica - tourism and scientific research
Continent is not populated, except by scientists at research stations
Tourists visit to see glacial landscapes, wildlife and some may enjoy the remoteness
Most ships are small, carrying 50-100 people
Tour companies have strict guidelines under the Lindblad Plan - boat trips divided into smaller groups and sites can only be visited every 3 days
Tourism has had minimal impact:
- Industry is well-run + guidelines are accepted by operators and tourists
- No disturbance to penguins and seals but terns are slightly effected
Some concerns include:
- fragile ecosystem - footprints on moss remain for decades
- tourist season coincides with breeding season
Threats to Antarctica - fishing and whaling
Whaling begun in the 19th century due to the population at the north pole being diminished. UK, USA and Norway were drivers of whaling industry
1994 - 50mil km^” area set up as a sanctuary, only Japan opposed this and continued to scientifically whale int he area
Overfishing and waste from ships still affect population and pollute waters
Threats to Antarctica - climate change
Peninsula experienced 3C rise in 50 years
Western side losing land ice and not gaining ant sea ice
Antarctic circumpolar current is warming more rapidly than global ocean which is leading to:
- changes in penguin colony distribution
- increases in plant colonisation
- decline in abundance of Antarctic krill
Increase in ice melt is partly offset by increased snowfall due to warming
Threats to Antarctica - mineral resources
There has never been commercial mining in Antarctica as it is completely banned. Future demand for resources will put pressure on Antarctica with its Silver, Gold and Cobalt reserves
In the 1980s, some members of the ATS attempted to pass the Mineral Convention which would allow mining
However, it was never ratified by all members, as France and Australia opposed it, leading to Madrid Protocol 1991
The Antarctica Treaty
December 1959, 12 nations signed up
Formalised and guaranteed free access and research rights, applying to the area below 60 degrees south
Now 56 members
The Antarctic Treaty System
Includes the Antarctica Treaty at its core with some periphery agreements:
- Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty
- Conservation of Antarctic Seals
- Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources
Overall, the system devotes itself to the protection of the environment, management of tourism, prohibition of military activities, and pursuit of scientific advancement
Successes of ATS
Each party has enjoyed peaceful cooperation and freedom of scientific research e.g. discovery of seasonal depletion of atmospheric ozone over continent
Has become recognised as one of the most successful sets of international agreements
Environmental protection and conservation
Limitations of ATS
Increased ecological footprint from research, tourism and fishing does not help environmental protection
Worries over China’s influence, after establishing 3 scientific bases (e.g. Zhongshan) - anticipation of clashes between sates that promote environmental protection and those focussed on accessing resources
From 2048, the Environmental Protocol, which underpins the ATS, can become under review and amended if >75% of the 52 signatories agree
The Madrid Protocol
Gives extra protection to the environment of Antarctica, particularly against mineral exploitation
1991- agreed as part of the ATS
1998 - ratified by all members and came into force
Up for review in 2048
Designates Antarctica as a ‘natural reserve, devotes to peace and science’, prohibits mining, subjects all activities to being environmentally assessed, requires waste to be returned to country of origin wherever possible
It is managed through audits around bases, on land and in the sea and new activities subject to environmental impact assessments
International Whaling Commission (IWC)
Established in 1946 with the aim to provide proper conservation of whale stocks and orderly development of the whaling industry. It included:
- complete protection of certain species
- designated areas as whale sanctuaries
- established limits on the numbers and sizes of whales which may be taken
The International Whaling Moratorium
1982 - IWC decided there should be a ban on commercial whaling
Does not affect aboriginal subsistence whaling
Japan continues to evade the moratorium by ‘special permit’ and Norway and Iceland continue to whale commercially under objection or reservation to the moratorium
Role of NGOs
Several NGOs have an active interest in the protection of the Antarctic but due to the constraints of the ATS, they can undertake very little in terms of direct impact.
Their main role is to ensure that the various protocols are enforced and bodies are actively monitoring threats and enhancing protection
e.g.
Greenpeace campaigned to create a 1.8mil km^2 ocean sanctuary and stop industrial krill fishing which is decimating food sources for larger animals
Antarctic and Southern Ocean Coalition
ASOC
Group of 30 NGOs including WWF, Friends of the Earth, and Greenpeace
The group has observer status in ATS and attends meetings
Instrumental in blocking of the Minerals Convention
Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research
SCAR
Role is to initiate, develop and coordinate the scientific research efforts taking place on Antarctica
