Animals as Outlaws

Question 1

can animals be seen as outlaws?

Answer 1

They can metaphorically be considered “outlaws” in stories and cultural narratives, particularly when they act in ways that defy human expectations, norms, or control. Historians and scholars of folklore, environmental history, and animal studies have explored how animals that resist human domination or disrupt human societies are framed as rebellious, dangerous, or even heroic in cultural memory.

Question 2

Eric Hobsbawm

Answer 2

“outlaws are not exclusively human; they are constructs of opposition, including animals that defy the boundaries of control and order’

Question 3

keith thomas

Answer 3

‘the fox, outsmarting the hunter, is not merely a predator but a symbol of cunning revellion against dominion’

Question 4

E.P. Thomas

Answer 4

‘by subjecting animals to human laws, societies reinforced their dominion while paradoxically acknowledging the agency of these creatures’

Question 5

william cronan

Answer 5

“predatory animals like wolves, whose territories overlapped with settler expansion became symbols of untamed wilderness, and thus outlaws in the human-dominated landscape”

Question 6

exmaples of animal outlaws

Answer 6

mosquitos
muskrats
wolves
foxes
crows & ravens
feral animals

Question 7

karen jones main argument

Answer 7

Jones argues that wolves transitioned from being seen as reviles predators (“varmints”) to celebrated ecological icons over a century. This transformation reflects broader societal changes in conservation ideology, frontier mythology, and the integration of ecological science in policy making.

Question 8

important primary source for animal/human relationship

Answer 8

Walter Campbell My Indian Journal 1864

Question 9

‘animals and the intimacy of history’

Answer 9

brett walker

Question 10

brett walker main argument

Answer 10

examines how historians explore human-animal relationships, emphasizing shared histories and challenging human exceptionalism. It critiques simplistic views of animals, highlighting the cultural basis of our understanding and advocating for a more integrated perspective on humans as part of the animal kingdom.

Question 11

early perception of wolves as written by karen jones

Answer 11

• Wolves were initially demonised as threats to livestock and competitors for game
• In the US and Canadian frontier vernacular, they became symbols of wilderness that needed to be tamed.
• In Banff, wolves were labelled a “standing menace”, and local authorities incentivised their eradication with bounties.
• The Calgary Herald Lauded settlers for killing wolves, framing it as a defence of civilisation.
• Theodore Roosevelt described wolves as “black-hearted criminals”.

Question 12

national parks and early conservation policies

Answer 12

• Early conservation policies in both countries prioritised the creation of “picturesque” wilderness for tourism and leisure, often to detriment of predators like wolves
• Yellowstone National Park wardens exterminated wolves to protect game animals and enhance visitor experience
• Banff adopted similar practices, with rangers measured by their wolf kills.
• Wolves were seen as “noxious species” with policies treating their eradication as “honourable”

Question 13

shift in perspective of wolves

Answer 13

• By the 1920s, ecological science began to emphasise the wolf’s role as an apex predator essential for ecosystem balance.
• The overpopulation of elk in Yellowstone post-wolf eradication highlighted the need for predators.
• Canadian parks, though slower to adopt these ideas, eventually limited wolf culling
• “Predation was in the process of being decriminalised”

Question 14

wolf reintroduction

Answer 14

• The US reintroduced wolves to Yellowstone in the 1990s, sourcing them from “wolf country” in Canada, signifying transnational cooperation in conservation.
• 33 wolves from Alberta were relocated to Yellowstone as part of a $7 million project
• “The reintroduction represented wolves as “symbols of friendship between our countries”.

Question 15

cultural & nationalistic implications

Answer 15

• The article explores the broader cultural meanings of wolves, contrasting US romanticisation with Canada’s more pragmatic view of them.
• Canadian newspaper noted Americans’ fascination with wolves, adjusting to US conditions.
• Wolves became “political animals” reflecting tensions and shared goals across the 49th parallel.