Animal tissues, organs and organ systems (2.2) (M) Flashcards

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1
Q

What does the breakdown of starch produce?

A

smaller sugars (e.g. sucrose/glucose)

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2
Q

What is the digestive system?

A

an organ system in which several organs work together to digest and absorb food.

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3
Q

What does the breakdown of lipids (fats) produce?

A

fatty acids and glycerol

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4
Q

What does the breakdown of protein produce?

A

amino acids

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5
Q

4 organs

Which organs do food pass through in the digestive system?

A
  • oesophagus/gullet
  • stomach
  • small intestine
  • large intestine
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6
Q

What is the function of the mouth in the digestive system?

A

where food is entered (ingested) into gut, saliva mixes with food here

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7
Q

What is the function of the salivary glands in the digestive system?

A

where saliva containing amylase is produced and released

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8
Q

What is the function of the oesophagus/gullet in the digestive system?

A

this muscular tube moves ingested food into the stomach

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9
Q

What is the function of the stomach in the digestive system?

A

this muscular organ holds food whilst being mixed with pepsin (example of protease) and contains HCL

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10
Q

What is the function of the liver in the digestive system?

A

produces bile

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11
Q

What is the function of the gallbladder in the digestive system?

A

stores bile before being released into small intestine

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12
Q

What is the function of the pancreas in the digestive system?

A

produces digestive enzymes

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13
Q

What is the function of the small intestine in the digestive system?

A

where food is mixed with bile and digestive enzymes and where absorption of food into blood occurs

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14
Q

What is the function of the large intestine in the digestive system?

A

where water is reabsorbed, faeces are stoned (created) and released

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15
Q

What are enzymes?

A

Large proteins that act as biological catalysts, speeding up the rate of reactions in living organisms

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16
Q

What do enzymes do?

A

Speed up the rate of reactions involved in metabolism

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17
Q

Describe the ‘lock and key’ of enzyme action

A

Enzyme binds/fits to substrate because they have complimentary shapes

so substrate broken down into products

when bonds within substrate are broken

so products are released or enzyme not changed

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18
Q

How do enzymes bind to substrates?

A

Every enzyme has its own unique active site, and it’s the specific shape of this active site that allows the enzyme to bind to its specific substrate (complimentary shape).

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19
Q

Explain why enzymes will not work with all substrates?

A

Each active site has a specific shape

Enzymes will only bind to one specific substrate, so if the substrate doesn’t fit the active site (not a complimentary shape), the chemical reaction won’t be catalysed

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20
Q

How are the nature of enzyme molecules related to increased temperature (above optimum)?

A

increasing the temperature increases the rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction until it gets so hot that some of the bonds holding the enzyme together break and the enzyme becomes denatured, so the active site no longer fits the substrate.

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21
Q

How are the nature of enzyme molecules related to extreme pH?

A

extreme pH changes can denature enzymes

(the bonds holding the enzyme together break, so the active site no longer fits the substrate)

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22
Q

Enzymes work best at (…) temperate and pH and this may (…) for different enzymes

A

optimum

vary

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23
Q

What is often optimum temperature for enzymes in the human body?

A

37oC

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24
Q

What is the role of digestive enzymes?

A

to convert large insoluble molecules of food into small soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the bloodstream

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25
Q

Which enzyme converts carbohydrates into simple sugars?

A

carbohydrase

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26
Q

Which do carbohydrases do?

A

break down carbohydrates to simple sugars

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27
Q

Where are carbohydrases produced?

A

salivary glands, pancreas and small intestine

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28
Q

Where do carbohydrases work?

A

the mouth and small intestine

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29
Q

Which carbohydrase breaks down starch?

A

Amylase

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30
Q

What do proteases do?

A

break down proteins to amino acids

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31
Q

Where is protease produced?

A

Stomach, pancreas and small intestine

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32
Q

Where do proteases work?

A

Stomach and small intestine

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33
Q

What do lipases do?

A

break down lipids (fats) to glycerol and fatty acids

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34
Q

2 uses

What are the products of digestion used to do?

A
  • used to build new carbohydrates, lipids and proteins
  • some glucose is used in respiration
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35
Q

Where is bile produced and where is it stored?

A

Bile is made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder

to be released into small intestine

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36
Q

Is bile acidic or alkaline?

A

alkaline

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37
Q

Why is bile being alkaline useful?

A

neutralise hydrochloric acid from the stomach so it can reach optimum pH

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38
Q

What else does bile do other than neutralising HCl from stomach?

A

emulsifies fats (fat globules) to form small droplets which increases the surface area to increase the rate of fat breakdown by lipase.

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39
Q

What do the alkaline conditions and large surface area of fat after mixing with bile do for fat breakdown?

A

increase the rate of fat breakdown by lipase

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40
Q

Is bile an enzyme?

A

No

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41
Q

What are the two main types of carbohydrates?

A

simple sugars (e.g. glucose) and starch (which is made up of chains of simple sugars)

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42
Q

What are proteins made up of?

A

long chains of amino acids

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43
Q

What are lipids (fats and oils) made up of?

A

fatty acids and glycerol

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44
Q

What is the heart and what is its function?

A

a muscular organ that pumps blood around the body in a double circulatory system

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45
Q

Describe the structure of the heart (left and right ventricle)?

A

The right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs where gas exchange takes place.

The left ventricle pumps blood around the rest of the body.

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46
Q

Label the heart

A
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47
Q

What is the function of the lungs?

A

to carry out gaseous exchange via diffusion

to bring in oxygen which is used in aerobic respiration to release energy and to give out carbon dioxide made in respiration, which is a toxic/harmful waste product

48
Q

Label the lungs

A
49
Q

4 ways

How are the lungs adapted for gaseous exchange?

A
  • Large surface area (alveolar walls are folded) for faster diffusion of gases across the surface
  • Thin walls (one-cell thick capillaries) to ensure diffusion distances remain short
  • Good ventilation with air so that diffusion gradients can be maintained
  • Good blood supply (dense capillary network) to maintain a high concentration gradient so diffusion occurs faster
50
Q

What is the pacemaker?

A

A group of cells that controls the natural resting heart rate

51
Q

Where is the pacemaker found?

A

located in the right atrium

52
Q

What are artificial pacemakers?

A

electrical devices used to correct irregularities in the heart rate

53
Q

What are the three types of blood vessel?

A

artery, vein, capillary

54
Q

Describe the structure, function and adaptations of arteries

A

function: transport blood away from the heart (usually at high pressure)

  • Have thick muscular walls and elastic fibres (more than veins)
  • Have small lumen

as they carry blood at high pressure

55
Q

Describe the structure, function and adaptations of veins

A

Function: transport blood to the heart (usually at low pressure)

  • Have thin walls and elastic fibres (fewer)
  • Have larger lumen

as carry blood at low pressure

  • Have valves to prevent blood flowing backwards (arteries don’t require valves as pressure is so high, blood can only flow in one direction only)
56
Q

Describe the structure, function and adaptations of capillaries

A

Function: allow substances to leave the blood to reach the body’s tissues

  • Interconnected/vast network close to cells
  • one cell thick (so tiny lumen) to carry blood at very high pressure
57
Q

Where in the lungs does gaseous exchange take place?

A

The alveoli

58
Q

What type of disease is coronary heart disease?

A

a non-communicable one (also a cardiovascular disease - disease of heart or blood vessels)

59
Q

Explain what happens in coronary heart disease

A

In coronary heart disease layers of fatty material build up inside the coronary arteries, narrowing them.

This reduces the flow of blood through the coronary arteries, resulting in a lack of oxygen for the heart muscle

60
Q

Why are stents used?

A

to keep the coronary arteries open

  • A narrow tube is threaded up through the groin up to the blocked vessel
  • A tiny balloon is then inflated
  • The balloon pushes the metal or plastic stent against the wall of the artery, increasing the width of the lumen
  • The balloon and tube are then removed
61
Q

Why are statins (drugs) widely used?

A

to reduce blood cholesterol levels which slows down the rate of fatty material deposit

62
Q

In some people heart valves may become faulty, what does this lead to?

A

it prevents the valve from opening fully, or the heart valve might develop a leak

It means a lower volume of oxygenated blood will be pumped (from the ventricle to artery and so) around the body to cells for aerobic respiration to release energy

63
Q

Faulty heart valves can be replaced using (…) (e.g. pig/cow valves) or (…) valves

A

biological

mechanical

64
Q

In the case of (…) a donor heart, or heart and lungs can be (…)

A

heart failure

transplanted

65
Q

When are artificial hearts used?

A

to keep patients alive whilst waiting for a heart transplant

or

to allow the heart to rest as an aid to recovery

only used occasionally as not as reliable/efficient

66
Q

3+1

What are the advantages and disadvantages of stents?

A

Adv:

  • are very effective at reducing the risk of a heart attack as they widen the lumen to increase blood flow to the coronary arteries
  • procedure is relatively simple
  • last a long time

Dis:

  • further treatment is required in a minority of cases
67
Q

3+4

What are the advantages and disadvantages of statins?

A

Adv:

  • reduce levels of ‘bad’ cholesterol in blood, preventing fatty material deposits building up reducing risk of CHD
  • can increase levels of ‘good’ cholesterol in blood
  • prevention of CHD better than having to treat it
  • easy to administer

Dis:

  • Must be taken continuously for life to be effective
  • Some side effects (e..g muscle/kidney damage)
  • Not suitable for people with liver disease.
  • Should not be taken if pregnant or breastfeeding.
68
Q

1+3

What are advantages and disadvantages of heart transplants

A

Adv:

  • improve quality of life

Dis:

  • Few donor hearts are available.
  • Recovery time is long.
  • There is a risk of rejection by the body’s immune system.
69
Q

6 + 6 + 2 (for both)

Compare mechanical and biological valve replacement

A

Mechanical valves

  • longer lasting
  • blood clots are more likely
  • patient has to take anti-clotting medication for the rest of their lives
  • if medication not taken correctly, clots can lead to heart attack/blood clot
  • medication can lead to excessive bleeding (after injury)
  • some patients say they can hear the valves opening and closing

biological valves

  • no additional medication required
  • ethical issues surrounding use of animal tissue
  • valve may harden
  • more likely to need further operation/another new valve
  • more likely to be rejected
  • more likely to need medication

both valves

  • both are readily available
  • little wait time
70
Q

What is health?

A

the state of physical and mental well-being

71
Q

3 needed

Diseases, both communicable and non-communicable, are major causes of ill health. What are some examples of other factors that lead to ill health?

A

diet, stress and life situations may have a profound effect on both physical and mental health

72
Q

4 ways

How may different types of diseases interact?

A
  • Defects in the immune system mean that an individual is more likely to suffer from infectious diseases.
  • Viruses living in cells can be the trigger for cancers.
  • Immune reactions initially caused by a pathogen can trigger allergies such as skin rashes and asthma.
  • Severe physical ill health can lead to depression and other mental illness.
73
Q

3 reasons

Why is sampling used when collecting epidemiological data?

A
  • for economic reasons
  • to shorten time for data to be produced
  • extremely hard to count every person with a disease
74
Q

What are some examples of non-communicable disease?

A
  • cancer
  • type 1 / 2 diabetes
  • genetic disorders and conditions
  • alzheimers
  • dementia
  • coronary heart disease
  • etc
75
Q

What are risk factors?

A

Factors that increase the rate of disease i.e. increase likelihood of individual getting disease, but do not directly cause it

may be affected by age, gender, etc

76
Q

What are the 2 categories of risk factors?

A
  • aspects of a person’s lifestyle
  • substances in the person’s body or environment
77
Q

Explain the proof between casual mechanisms (causation) and risk factors?

A

A causal mechanism has been proven for some risk factors, but not in others

78
Q

Many diseases are caused by the (…) of a (…) of factors.

A

interaction

number of

79
Q

How does exercise reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease?

A

exercise lowers blood pressure, reducing strain on the heart

80
Q

Why should a national review take place during studies to prove a casual mechanism rather than a small regional review?

A

The residents in region may be exposed to type of pollution that increases risk of (stated disease)

Residents may exercise less in that region

etc

81
Q

What does cigarette smoke contain and how does increase the risk of cancer?

A

It contains carcinogens (chemicals) which damage DNA and increase risk of (e.g. lung cancer)

82
Q

3 things

What are risk factors for cardiovascular disease?

A
  • diet
  • smoking
  • lack of exercise
83
Q

2 types of diet

How does a poor diet increase risk of cardiovascular disease?

A

A diet high in fat and low in vegetables increases levels of certain types of cholesterol in blood, which increases the rate that fatty materials build up in the arteries

A diet high in salt can increase blood pressure

84
Q

3 ways

What can someone do to reduce their risk of developing cardiovascular disease?

A

exercising regularly

eat a healthy, balanced diet

don’t/stop smoking

85
Q

What is a risk factor of Type 2 diabetes?

A

obesity

86
Q

What increases the risk fo developing lung disease and lung cancer?

A

smoking

these diseases are unpleasant and lead to a poor quality of life

87
Q

What two factors increase the risk of a miscarriage (unborn baby) and premature births?

A
  • drinking alcohol
  • smoking

may also result in low-body mass

88
Q

What does drinking alcohol when pregnant cause?

A

fetal alcohol syndrome

89
Q

What can children with fetal alcohol syndrome have?

A

learning difficulties and other mental or physical health problems

90
Q

What increases the risk of liver cirrhosis and liver cancer?

A

Drinking alcohol

91
Q

What is a risk factor for poor brain function?

A

drinking alcohol

92
Q

What can drinking alcohol mean for brain function?

A

It can lead to addiction and memory loss

93
Q

How can drinking excess alcohol lead to an increase in developing type 2 diabetes?

A

Drinking excess alcohol can lead to obesity and then that increases the risk of Type 2 diabetes

94
Q

Other than smoking, what is something else that increases the risk of cancer?

A

carcinogens

95
Q

Ionising radiation is an example of…

A

carcinogens

96
Q

What is a non-lifestyle factor that increases the risk of developing cancer?

A

Ionising radiation permanently in atmosphere and irremovable

(e.g. radon found in rocks in UK which increases risk of developing lung disease)

97
Q

What is the consequence of having too much bad cholesterol in the blood?

A

increased risk of heart disease

because of fatty deposits building up in coronary arteries

reducing (oxygenated) blood flow to heart

98
Q

10 points - 4 marker (so not all needed)

What is the effect of a faulty valve?

A

backflow can occur

less blood is pumped around the body

less oxygen supplied to muscles / cells

so less aerobic respiration

so less energy release

so less efficient muscle contraction

anaerobic respiration takes place

lactic acid builds up/oxygen debt occurs

lactic acid building up causes muscle fatigue

less efficient removal of carbon dioxide from blood

99
Q

What is a drug?

A

A chemical/substance that affects chemical reactions in the body

100
Q

How could someone develop an investigation to find out more about the glucose production in plants, after having tested the leafs for it?

A

test roots/stems of plant for glucose

101
Q

Exhaustive list

When conducting a large survey of medical disease, what are some factors that scientists should control?

A
  • age
  • gender
  • ethnicity
  • BMI
  • (smoking) habits - e.g. for effect of alcohol on liver disease
  • diet
  • medication
  • family history of x disease
102
Q

4 marker - but VERY exhaustive list here

Describe the effects of liver failure in the human body

A

•   no bile made (in the liver)

○   fats / lipids are not emulsified

○   surface area of fats / lipids not increased

○   pH of small intestine will not be alkaline / neutralised

○   enzymes (in small intestine) will not work effectively or (named) food not digested / absorbed

○   so may lose weight

•   lactic acid not broken down / oxidised

○   accumulation of lactic acid in blood / body

○   lactic acid is toxic or body will be poisoned

○   oxygen debt higher / prolonged

○   so muscle pain / fatigue

•   proteins / amino acids will not be broken down (in liver)

○   (amino acids) not deaminated

○   amino acids not made into urea or will not form ammonia

○   (however) any ammonia formed is toxic

○   so accumulation of amino acids in blood / body

•   liver does not break down / remove other toxins (like alcohol)

○   toxins accumulate in blood / body

○   body will be poisoned

○   so pain or jaundice or swollen liver or portal hypertension occurs

•   glycogen stores will not be formed

○   cannot control blood glucose

○   so hyperglycaemia / hypoglycaemia / diabetes / coma may occur

103
Q

How will the enzyme breakdown be affected by temperature changing from 40oC to 20oC?

A

substrate broken down less quickly

because at 20oC, enzymes have less (kinetic) energy

104
Q

3 + 5

Compare the advantages and disadvantages of artificial hearts?

A

Adv:

  • relatively normal life until transplant
  • no tissue match needed
  • no immunosuppressant drugs needed

Dis:

  • only suitable temporarily
  • need a lot of machinery
  • risk of blood clotting
  • expensive
  • large
105
Q

4 marks

Describe the route taken by oxygenated blood from the lungs to body cells

A

travels through pulmonary vein

enters left atrium

enters left ventricle

leaves heart via aorta

106
Q

How is glucose moved from the small intestine to muscle cell?

A

glucose is absorbed by diffusion into the bloodstream

then blood delivers glucose to muscles in capillaries

make sure to use absorption terminology for the digestive system

107
Q

6 marker

How is the human circulator system adapted to supply oxygen to tissues?

A
  • dual / double circulatory system which means that it has higher blood pressure and a greater flow of blood to the tissues
  • heart made of specialised muscle cells which have long protein filaments that can slide past each other to shorten the cell to bring about contraction for pumping blood
  • heart pumps blood to lungs in pulmonary artery so that oxygen can diffuse into blood from air in alveoli
  • blood returns to heart via pulmonary vein where muscles pump blood to the body via aorta
  • arteries carry oxygenated blood to tissues where capillaries deliver oxygen to cells for respiration and energy release
  • thin walls allow for easy diffusion to cells
  • large surface area of capillaries to maximise exchange
  • blood goes back to the heart in veins which have valves to prevent backflow
108
Q

3 marks - but 4 points you could give

How could somebody be treated an irregular heartbeat?

A

Being fitted with an artificial pacemaker

to deliver an electrical current to the heart

To regulate the group of cells in the wall of the right atrium (the pacemaker)

these cells control the rate at which the heart contracts

109
Q

How do valves prevent the back flow of blood if it starts to occur?

A

They close

returns blood to the heart, lower pressure means it could flow backwards if valves were not present

110
Q

4 marks

How does CHD develop and what are its causes?

A

Any three from the following:

  • Build-up of layers of fatty material/deposits/plaque inside the coronary arteries; [1 mark]
  • Causing the arteries/lumen to narrow over time; [1 mark]
  • Leading to reduced blood-flow to the heart muscle; [1 mark]
  • Coronary arteries cannot deliver enough oxygen to the heart muscle; [1 mark]
  • The heart muscle cells cannot respire aerobically; [1 mark]
  • Can lead to heart attack / angina; [1 mark]

The main causes of CHD are:

Any one from the following:

  • High-levels of cholesterol/saturated fat in diet
111
Q

What is a non-communicable disease?

A

A disease that is not transferred from person to person (not infectious and not caused by pathogen)

112
Q

6 marker

How do diet, life situations and stress lead to health problems?

A

Award up to two marks for each factor from the following:

Diet:

  • Eating a poor diet could result in a lack of nutrients/nutrient deficiencies so it is difficult to maintain good health; [1 mark]
  • Eating in excess/consuming too many calories could result in obesity; [1 mark]
  • Obesity can be a risk factor in many diseases such as CHD, diabetes, high blood pressure, certain cancers; [1 mark]
  • Poor diet can lead to diabetes that could have long term consequences; [1 mark]
  • Food allergies/intolerances can can lead to longer term health issues; [1 mark]

Stress:

  • Constant/chronic stress can lead to cardiovascular issues (high blood pressure, CHD); [1 mark]
  • Constant/chronic stress can lead to mental health problems (that can lead to other chronic conditions); [1 mark]
  • Constant/chronic stress has been associated with a range of diseases e.g. asthma, Alzheimers, gastrointestinal problems, [1 mark]

Life situations:

  • Where a person lives can affect health e.g. air pollution; [1 mark]
  • People may not have access to adequate healthcare; [1 mark]
  • Low-income may affect the quality/amount of food they buy (poor diet); [1 mark]
113
Q

4 needed out of longer list

What are some lifestyle factors to reduce the risk of developing CHD?

A
  • Eat a healthy balanced diet
  • Lower blood cholesterol by cutting down on fatty foods
  • Reduce the amount of salt in the diet to help reduce blood pressure
  • Take regular exercise
  • Maintain a healthy weight/BMI
  • Stop smoking (as it reduces the buildup of plaques/fatty material deposits in the coronary arteries)
  • Try and minimise stress as this can lead to elevated blood pressure (which narrows the coronary arteries)
114
Q

4 marker

Describe a procedure to widen the diameter of the lumen of the coronary arteries

A
  • A stent can be inserted

The medical procedure involves:

Any three from the following:

  • A narrow tube (catheter) is inserted into the blocked vessel (via the groin or neck)
  • The stent and a balloon are passed through the tube to the blocked artery
  • The balloon is inflated
  • the inflated balloon expands the stent which increases the width of the lumen
  • The balloon and catheter are removed
115
Q

2 marks - 3 you could give

How may a fetus be affected if the mother smokes tobacco?

A

Birth mass reduced

smoke contains carbon monoxide

blood carries less oxygen

116
Q

What are two factors that can affect the concentrations of cholesterol in the blood?

A
  • Diet
  • Genes
117
Q

How does nicotine cause a person to become addicted?

A

alters/causes chemical processes