Animal Products Flashcards
-comprises both urine and feces
Animal Waste
-consists of water together with nitrogenous waste from the animal (urea in mammals and uric acid in birds) and other soluble compounds that pass through the kidney
-also present may be antibiotics and other drugs such as growth stimulants
Urine
-are the undigested and/or unabsorbed materials that are voided by the animal
Feces
In livestock, the feces are called ______. The composition of ______ depends on the animal species and the composition of animal feed (e.g protein content)
Manure
Feces also contain the following:
-microorganisms
-any unabsorbed minerals and metals
-products of bacterial fermentation in the intestine
An example of a chemical found in animal waste with an extremely bad smell is _______. This gives feces its characteristic smell.
Skatole
-can be used as a source of plant nutrients, particularly nitrogen and phosphorus
Animal waste
-is used by organic producers often as the principal source of plant nutrients to fertilize
Manure
“The most alarming of all man’s assaults upon the environment is the contamination of air, earth, rivers and sea.”
Rachel Carson
is an agricultural operation in which animals are raised in confined situations
Animal Feeding Operation (AFO)
-is an agricultural operation in which animals are raised in confined situations.
-they tend to be larger than AFOs.
-about 15% of AFOs are CAFOs.
Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO)
CAFOs must meet both of the following criteria:
-Animals are confined for at least 45 days in a 12 month period
-There is no grass or other vegetation in the confinement area during the normal growing season
-CAFOs are regulated by the U.S EPA as point source of pollution
-director of environmental stewardship for animal agriculture at Michigan State University.
-As a nutritionist, a major focus of her current research program is to study how diets can be modified to reduce nutrient excretions and air emissions.
Dr. Wendy Powers
6 human pathogens
- Campylobacter spp. (bateria)
- Salmonella spp. (nonthypoid, protozoan)
- Listeria monocytogenes (protozoan)
- Escherichia coli (protozoan)
- Cryptosporidium parvum (protozoan)
- Giardia lamblia (protozoan)
The 6 human pathogens account for over __% of food borne and water borne diseases in people, and frequently also affect cats and dogs.
90%
-can be considered as “non point pollution” with animals on pasture or ranch, or when there is land application of the animal waste.
-can wash into rivers, creeks, and streams, for example during a rainstorm.
Animal waste
Composition of Cattle’s (dried) waste (percentage)
Nitrogen 1.3
Phosphate 0.9
Potassium 0.8
Composition of Horse’s (fresh) Waste (percentage)
Nitrogen 0.6
Phosphate 0.3
Potassium 0.5
Composition of Pig’s (fresh) Waste (percentage)
Nitrogen 0.6
Phosphate 0.5
Potassium 0.4
Composition of Poultry with litter’s Waste percentage
Nitrogen 2.8
Phosphate 2.8
Potassium 1.5
-contributes to the shifts in the composition of Earth’s atmosphere, including ammonia, greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, and methane, and odiferous compounds affecting the neighbors of animal units
Agriculture
Global emissions of atmospheric ammonia (NH3) in million metric tons NH3-N per year (FAO data)
Livestock 21
Synthetic fertilizers 9
Undisturbed ecosystems 10
Croplands 4
Biomass burning 4
Human excrement 3
Oceans 8
Biofuel combustion 2
Total emission 61
ppmv
parts per million by volume
ppbv
parts per billion by volume
Ammonia from animals (million metric tons)
cattle 12.9
sheep and goats 1.5
pigs 3.4
poultry 1.9
buffalo 1.9
is oxidized to nitric acid oxide and therefore, nitrate or to N2O and nitrogen gas by nitrification in the soil
Ammonia
mitigations of the effects of agriculture on greenhouse gases
- Changes in agronomic practices
- Improvements in the efficiency of animal production
- Manure management to reduce CH4 and N2O
This figure includes food stamps, the federal women, infants, and children program, and donated food, and represents about 5.7% of the household disposable income.
Food at home ($583 billion)
This figure includes expense account and other business-related meals together with meals to inmates and patients. Excluding these meals, the food away from home decreases to $416 billion, which is 4.1% of the household disposable income.
Food away from home ($1,139 billion)
is the approach developed to ensure safety of food for astronauts more than 30 years ago. It is used by the FDA and USDA to improve the safety of food in the United States
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP)
is responsible for inspection of meat at packing plants
U.S Department of Agriculture’s Food Safety Inspection Service
-sets standard for food safety.
-one body for sanitary and phytosanitary issues of food safety
-this body uses a science-based risk assessment
Codex Alimentarius Commission
is a life-threatening illness caused by the bacterium Salmonella typhi
Typhoid fever
-is an intestinal infection caused by food or water contaminated with the bacteria Vibrio cholerae-the bacteria produce an enterotoxin causing watery diarrhea.
-can lead to severe dehydration or death
-one of the 3 diseases that require notification to World Health Org.
Cholera
-can be carried by shellfish from water polluted by raw sewage.
-a disease of the liver
Hepatitis A
-contaminated raw or partially cooked shellfish can be the source of noroviruses causing viral ____________.
-the infection can also be spread by food preparers infected with the virus
Gastroentritis
Risk factors for food-borne pathogens are the following:
-young children (<4 or 5 yrs)
-older people (>60 or 65 yrs)
-pregnant
-immune system compromised because of HIV or chemotherapy
-reduced liver or kidney function
-is to have the healthiest animals or their products being harvested
-examples of successful preharvest food safety is the elimination of Salmonella from flocks of laying chickens and the tremendous reduction of trichina in pork.
Pre harvest food safety
-treatment of carcasses to reduce pathogens, pasteurization, and irradiation
Post harvest food safety
-occurs when the hide or intestines are being removed
Contamination
-are all effective in reducing bacteria contamination of the carcasses
Acetic, lactic and citric acid solutions
is used to reduce pathogens in broiler-processing plants
Trisodium phosphate
-is the treatment of food with either radiation from radioactive isotopes or electrons from a linear accelerator to kill pathogens and spoilage microorganisms
-does not increase the temperature of the food, the energy waves are not retained by the food and the food does not become radioactive
Food irradiation
The Organic Consumers Association and Public Citizen opposes irradiation of food, these cite concerns such as:
-irradiation does not help the consumer or the farmer
-irradiation masks “filthy conditions in slaughterhouses”
-irradiation leads to the formation of toxic compounds in the meat
-irradiation destroys nutrients such as vitamins
Organizations that support food irradiation:
-American Medical Association
-American Veterinary Medical Association
-Institute of Food Technologists
-Scientific Committee of the European Union
-United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
-World Health Organization
-National Food Processors Association
-U.S CDC and Prevention
HACCP is based on 7 principles:
- Do a hazard analysis to identify where problems may exist and actions that may be taken to remedy the problems
- Identify the critical control points that are critical for the safety of the products
- Establish critical limits that define the difference between safe and unsafe products
- Establish a system to monitor control of CCP
- Establish corrective actions to be taken when a CCP is not under control
- Establish procedures to verify that the HCCP system is working correctly
- Establish documentation for all processes and steps
-is ensured by hand washing, sanitation of the cooking surfaces and utensils, keeping uncooked meat separated from salads, a correct thawing technique, and cooking to an adequate temperature to destroy pathogens
Food Safety at Home or in a Restaurant
these are virus-like particles that require taking over the cellular systems of bacteria to propagate. -these have an antibiotic affect
Bacteriophage
may have potential uses to reduce pathogen loads in food and therefore improve food safety
Colicins
-in the United States is a major industry, with $70 billion production in 2006
-it is readily apparent that the U.S is a net exporter of meat, with pork and chicken exports more than making up for the imbalance in beef
Meat production
are the number 2 countries for consumption of meat in the world
Americans
-is an important part of the human diet.
-in its food pyramid the USDA recommends the consumption of meat and meat products, or their equivalent
Meat
The quality of Meat is determined by a number of important factors:
-color
-amount of marbling or intramuscular fat giving a good eating experience
-drip or exudate
-physical properties such as shear
-palatability or eating properties
is where pigs exhibit increased susceptibility to stress, as can readily be established by their high sensitivity to the anesthetic gas halothane
Porcine Stress Syndrome
Traditional Food Preservation Techniques
Curing
Drying
Smoking
Pickling
which was originally from the back (bakkon) of the pig
Bacon
-canned spiced ground pork or ham that is a trademarked product of Hormel
-the name may have been originally an acronym for the shoulder of pork and ham or from SPiced hAM.
Spam
from vulgar Latin salamen, from salare “to salt” and from the Latin sal (genus salis) “salt”
Salami
derives from vulgar Latin salsica which means “seasoned with salt”
Sausage
is a sausage that originated in Bologna, Italy
Bologna sausage or Bologna
sausage from Frankfurt, Germany
Frank or Frankfurter
has no definite link to the town of hamburg in Germany
Hamburger
comes from the city of Vienna, as does weener, wiener, and wienerwurst
Vienna sausage
German for sausage
Wurst
is from the urban legend that hotdogs contained dog meat.
Hot dog
The origin of words used for processed animal products:
- part of the carcass
- method of food preservation
- geographic origin of different meats
- urban legend
usually accomplished by salting, consists of using dry salt or concentrated salt solution/brine or a brine containing salt “corns” to “pull” water out of the meat so that the meat has high osmotic pressure, represents a hostile environment for microorganisms, and prevents autodegradation
Curing
Examples of curing
bacon-cured with brine
corn beef-cured with brine
ham-either dry salt cured or brine cured
pastrami-beef that has been salt cured and cooked
Examples of Dried meat and fish
jerky-beef that is heat or sun-dried to remove water
pemmican-dried pulverized meat with berries and fat
lutefisk-whitefish, like cod that is air-dried and treated with either soda lye or potash (a scandinavian dish)
Examples of smoked meat and fish
-smoked bacon and ham
-smoked salmon
-smoked whitefish
-smoked herring or kipper
used to preserve food by achieving an acid environment inhospitable to pathogenic bacteria
Pickling
Examples of pickled animal products
-pickled herring
-rollmaps
-pickled eggs
3 major types of processed meat
ready to eat
shelf stable
cooked, but not shelf stable
Types of Processing to Produce Ham
-dry cured, which is rubbed with salt together with sodium nitrate, and some sugar, this is followed by drying and aging
-wet cured, which involves soaking in or injection of brine, traditionally followed by smoking
-prosciutto, ham produced by the technique of salting and drying to remove water, and originates from regions of central and northern Italy
-are traditionally ground meat with spices encased in the small intestine, they can be skinless or encased in artificial casing.
-in some sausages, the finely ground meat is in the form of an emulsion
-may be eaten after cooking, or if cured, dried, or smoked, cooking may not be necessary
Sausages
Types of sausages:
•bologna
•bratwurst
•braunschweiger
•chorizo
•hot dogs
•kielbasa
•liverwurst
•pepperoni
•salami
•summer sausage (cervelat)
cooked, smoked, cured beef and pork that is salted and ready to eat
bologna
fresh, and sometimes smoked and cooked
bratwurst
-is a German sausage originating from Thuringia.
-it is also popular in some states in the United States, such as Wisconsin and Iowa, which had high numbers of Germans who immigrated there in the 19th century
-made from finely chopped pork and/or beef
-the term brat comes from the fine chopping
Bratwurst
-precooked, smoked liver, eggs, plus milk
-ready to eat and is spreadable
braunschweiger
smoked fatty pork
chorizo
cooked, smoked, pork or beef cured and ready to eat
hotdogs
fresh, smoked beef and pork that is served cooked
kielbasa
-from the German leberwurst
-made of ground pork and pig liver, and after curing and drying, it is ready to eat
liverwurst
air-dried pork and beef that is usually ready to eat
pepperoni
hindquarter pork or beef, cured and dried, and can be ready to eat
salami
pork dried, cured, and ready to eat
summer sausage (cervelat)
is a major milk producer, and milk production is increasing
United States
156 billion lb of milk were produced with per-cow production of 16,800 lb of milk
In 1997
186 billion lb of milk was produced, with per-cow production of 20,300 lb of milk
In 2007
-are a major part of diet in the United States
-can reduce the risk of low bone mass of osteoporosis throughout the human life cycle.
-the nutrients include calcium, potassium, iron, magnesium, vit D, and protein.
-other health benefits of milk products are that they provide little fat to the diet when consumed in their low-fat or fat-free forms
Milk and milk products
4 usage categories for milk
Class 1-for fluid milk, with 2% milk the largest market for fluid milk
Class 2-for soft manufactured items such as yoghurt or ice cream
Class 3-for hard cheese
Class 4-for butter and powdered milk
-those adults who do not have lactase
-they should avoid dairy products that contain lactose
lactose intolerant
failure to digest lactose leads to unpleasant effects such as:
-flatulence or gas
-diarrhea with a foul-smelling stool
-bloating (abdominal distension)
sheep were domesticated
9000 BC
goats were domesticated
8000 BC
cheese making begins
7500 BC
cattle were domesticated
5800 BC
Borden opened the first condensed milk plant and cannery in Wassaic, New York
1861
pasteurization was required in most of the U.S
1917
methods of increasing vitamin D in milk were developed
1932
introduction of artificial insemination
1930s
the Food and Drug Administration approves the use of bovine somatotropin to increase the efficiency of milk production in dairy cattle
1985
-technique of heating foods to reduce spoilage
-developed initially by Louis Pasteur originally for wine and then applied to milk
-greatly reduces the number of bacteria in milk that can lead to spoilage, and some are human pathogens
Pasteurization
destroys many of pathogens in milk including Campylobacter jejuni, Yersinia enterocolitica, Listeria monocytogenes, Salmonella organisms and Escherichia coli
Pasteurization
is a common cause of mastitis, which is an infection of the mammary gland, in dairy cattle and therefore can easily contaminate milk
Staphylococcus aureus
History of milk pasteurization in the U.S
1850 & 1920-incidence
1863-Louis Pasteur developed pasteurization
1891-first milk-processing plant in the U.S with pasteurization equipment was built in Bloomfield, New Jersey
1908-Chicago was the first major U.S city to require pasteurization of milk
1905 & 1914-Nathan Straus provided pasteurized milk at low cost to poor people
1914-NYC and Philadelphia required pasteurization of milk
1917-most major cities required that all milk be pasteurized
-involves heating milk to a high temperature(138°c or 250°f) for a fraction of a second
-ultrahigh-temperature milk can be stored at room temp for up to 90 days
-after the sealed container is opened, it should be treated like any other milk and refrigerated
Ultra-pasteurization or Ultrahigh temperature
-milk should be stored at 3°c (38°f)
-this greatly reduces the multiplication of bacteria that lead to spoilage and of pathogenic bacteria
Refrigeration
-emulsion with the fat globules in an aqueous phase
-when milk is left to stand, the fat rises to the top, forming a layer of cream
Milk
-the diameter of fat globules is markedly decreased by passing the milk under pressure through a small hole.
-the fat globules have a greatly increased surface area to mass ratio, which results in a much more stable emulsion without the property of the cream separating from the skimmed milk
Homogenization
-is an issue or “cause célèbre” for health food advocates
-some have gone as far as stating that pasteurized milk can result in allergies and as far as it causes heart disease and cancer
Raw Milk
has a long history, having been produced for at least 3500 years
butter
was only developed about 300 years ago
ice cream
have been around for over 2000 years, made from mixing snow with fruit juice and/or honey
frozen desserts
Fat content of Frozen dairy desserts:
Low or reduced-fat ice cream: less than 10% butter fat
Ice cream: 10% butter fat
Premium and superpremium ice cream: 13-17% butter fat
Frozen custard: 10% butter fat and 1.4% of egg yolk
-are made from milk of cattle, sheep, goats, and buffalo
-there is archaeological evidence from the fertile crescent that it has been produced for over 7000 years
-it is suggested that cheese was first produced by chance or “serendipity” when milk was carried in the stomach of a young goat, sheep, or cow
Cheeses
the presence of rennet (enzyme) from the stomach curdled the milk, contributing to solid chunks (curds) and liquid (whey)
Cheese production
a culture containing Propionibacter (bacteria producing propionic acid) is added
Swiss cheese (Emmental)
there are veins of the mold Penicillium roqueforti
Roquefort blue cheese
produced in Iowa, also contain blue, blue-black, or blue-green molds
Maytag blue
is creamy but a high protein/low fat cheese produced as a by-product (the whey) of producing mozzarella and other Italian cheese
Ricotta cheese
Examples of Cheeses
-Brie (cow milk) from France
-Cheddar (cow milk) from England
-Chèvre (goat milk) from France
-Emmental/Swiss cheese (cow milk) from Switzerland
-Feta (sheep and goat milk) from Greece
-Gruyère (cow milk) from Switzerland
-Mozzarella (water buffalo milk) from Italy
-Parmesan (Parmigiano-Reggiano) (cow milk) from Italy
-Roquefort (cow milk) from France
-acts on a milk protein, K-casein, to generate a soluble small protein (in whey) and an insoluble larger protein that in the presence of calcium forms the curds
Rennin
Several forms of rennet:
-calf rennet extracted from the mucosa of the abomasum of calves
-plant-derived rennet(suitable for vegetarians)
-recombinant-derived rennet, in which the bovine chymosin gene is placed into microorganisms
-is milk that has been cultured with Lactobacillus acidophilus.
-it is believed that the milk is more easily digested and that gastrointestinal immunity is improved
Acidophilus Milk or Sweet Acidophilus Milk
-is a semisolid fermented milk product
-specific microorganisms (Lactobacillus bulgaricus or occassionally L. acidophilus and Streptococcus thermophilus) ferment milk, converting the milk sugar lactose to lactic acid
Yogurt
-The lactic acid in turn acts on the milk proteins, affecting their physical characteristics.
-Making yogurt originated several thousand years ago and was brought to Europe by nomadic people such as either the Bulgarians or Mongolians
Yogurt
There is considerable price differential between those for specialty products and for conventional or commodity animal products. This may be because of the following issues:
- perceived quality differences
- real differences in taste or consistency
- absence of antibiotics and other chemicals used in the production systems
- religious rules
is that allowed under Jewish law, which is based on Leviticus and other books in the Bible
Kosher Food
Kosher Products that are permitted
-beef, lamb, and chicken if slaughtered in an approved manner in the presence of rabbi
-fish with fins and scales
-dairy and meat products that have been processed according to Jewish Talmudic law (Halacha)
Animal products not permitted in Kosher foods
-pork, shellfish, and fish without fins and scales such as shark and catfish.
-it’s also not permitted to consume dairy products at the same time that meat is being consumed
-is food that is permitted by Islamic law
-Halal foods are certified, for instance, by the Muslim Consumer Group
Halal
Halal foods that are permitted:
-beef,lamb,chicken if slaughtered in an approved manner by a Muslim who speaks the name of Allah before cutting the animal’s throat
-fish
-shrimp and some shellfish may be permitted depending in the branch of school of thought within Islam
Not permitted in Halal foods
blood
pork
alcohol
-is defined by the National Organic Standards Board as “an ecological production management system that promotes and enhances biodiversity, biological cycles and soil biological activity
Organic agriculture
-It is based on minimal use of off-farm inputs and on management practices that restore, maintain, or enhance ecological harmony
-the primary goal is to optimize the health and productivity of interdependent communities of soil life, plants, animals and people
Organic agriculture
The requirements for certification of organic animal products:
- The livestock receive 100% feed from crops grown in an organic manner. Crops and forage can use improved plant varieties, but not genetically engineered plants. Neither synthetic fertilizers nor pesticides can be used in the production of the animal feed.
- Livestock must be provided access to pasture
- Synthetic hormones and antibiotics are not permitted in production
- Alternative health therapies, such as botanical remedies and manipulation can be used
- Vaccination, minerals and vitamins are allowed
- Synthetic parasiticides are not permitted
Exceptions to the overall requirements:
- Oxytocin is allowed for organic production to safeguard the health of cattle
- The use of parasiticide ivermectin is allowed for the treatment of dairy cattle and breeder stock, but not for animals going for slaughter
- Antibiotics are permitted in organic livestock production systems in vaccines and semen as preservatives
Animal products marketed as “Natural Meat”
-Niman Ranch or cage-free or free-range eggs
-free-range poultry
-grass-fed cattle
Co-products or By-products of Animal Production
-Leather
-Gelatin and animal glues
-synthesis of biodiesel from waste animal fat
-is one of the biggest exporters of cattle hides, with $1 billion in sales per year.
United States
Major importers are where there is production of leather goods like coats, jackets and shoes in places like:
China
Southeast Asia
Egypt
-is cleaned, soaked in lime to stretch, and tanned with veggetable tannin (traditional), chromium sulfate or aldehyde, or other chemicals. Tanning can be highly polluting
Leather
Examples of Specified Production Systems and Specialty Products
Niman Ranch
Coleman Natural Foods
-uses what it describes as “traditional methods on family farms” to produce beef, pork, and lamb.
-these systems require that the animals are raised under specific conditions without antibiotics, hormones, or animal by-products and with vegetarian animal feeds.
Niman Ranch
-was started by Bill Niman in the early 1970s near San Francisco. Today, it has more than 500 independent growers. Menus in some very good restaurants include the statement that the meat is Niman Ranch becuase of its reputation for good quality. Moreover, meat is sold by gourmet stores or on the internet
Niman Ranch
-markets both natural and organic beef, pork, chicken and sausages with 35% of the products sold being organic and the rest natural.
-the company states that the natural products have the following attributes: natural, no antibiotics, no hormones used, no preservatives, and no animal by-products in the feed (always vegetarian fed)
Coleman Natural Foods
Examples of Coleman Natural Foods brands
-Organic Rosie Petaluma’s Organic Chicken
-Rocky the Range Chicken, which is a free-range chicken
-is produced by the hydrolysis of collagen, the protein in connective tissue. The raw material for gelatin production is cattle and pig hides and bones
Gelatin
2 types of animal glues:
Hide glue
Hoof glue
-these are not surprisingly from the hides and hooves from cattle, pigs, and horses
-a renewable fuel, can be used as the fuel in a diesel engine or blended with petroleum-based diesel
-is produced from lipids in algae, vegetable oils, animal fats, and recycled restaurant grease
Biodiesel
is produced by a chemical process known as transesterification
Biodiesel
-is a pharmaceutical estrogen product isolated from the urine of pregnant horses.
-it is used for hormone replacement therapy
Premarin
-essential to the production of Premarin
-there are about 700 farms with 80,000 horses producing the urine, the mares have to be maintained such that the urine can be readily collected
Pregnant mare urine
-the third most prescribed drug in the world
-it is a complex of predominantly 3 estrogens: estrone sulfate, and 2 unique horse estrogens, including equilin and equilenin
Premarin
