Animal Behavior, Animal Welfare and the Environment Flashcards
There are many types of behaviors that are exhibited by animals, including aggression, reproductive behavior, grooming behavior, feeding, drinking, and elimination behaviors, behaviors to facilitate temperature homeostasis (cooling or heating), and communication
Animal Behavior
“I like pigs, Dogs look up to us. Cats look down on us. Pigs treat us as equals.”
Winston Churchill
2 types of Animal Aggression
Interspecies
Intraspecies
involves a series of behaviors between different species such as a predator attacking its prey, or antipredatory behaviors.
Interspecies Aggression
aggression to protect against a predator
Antipredatory behaviors
dogs and llamas as watch animals to prevent predation of sheep, or dogs to protect their owners
Example with domestic Animals
(interspecies aggression)
is directed toward other members of the same species
Intraspecies aggression
Different aggressive behaviors
-Territoriality
-Social hierarchy
-Other aggressive behaviors include where another member of the same species is attacked and potentially killed or where there is forced mating.
This is where an animal, frequently the male, defends a territory against intruders. This may be a male defending a single female or a group, or “harem” of females such that the male genes are passed on, or both male and females defend an area to protect sources of feed for themselves and their offspring
Territoriality
is important in social species and group-housed livestock to maintain stability and reduce the chances of injury to members of the group
Social Hierarchy or Peck Order
can be maintained by the higher animals showing aggressive behaviors, whereas the subordinate shows submissive behavior.
Social hierarchy
can affect food intake if space at the feeder or feed bunk is limited because “lower status” animals may not get sufficient time to eat
Social hierarchy
Other aggressive encounters include
where another member of the same species is attacked and potentially killed or where there is forced mating
are affected by the presence and amount of the male hormone testosterone acting on the brain, with castrated males not exhibiting aggressive behavior. There is evidence that the neurotransmitter serotonin and its amino acid precursor tryptophan are involved in brain control of aggression
many aggressive behaviors
Examples of Intraspecies Aggression
-Aggression in Chickens
-Aggression and other behavioral problems in dogs
-cockfighting
-crowing
-forced copulation
-roughness during mating with females struggling
-decreases in courtship behavior
-feather pecking that can lead to cannibalism
Aggression in chickens
an activity taking advantage of the natural proclivity of roosters to fight
Cockfighting
first species in which researchers established the principle of pen orders, with the dominant animals showing a higher frequency of pecking toward subordinates.
Chickens
are more aggressive than game chickens or layer type white Leghorns or jungle fowl both toward other males and toward females
Broiler breeder males
can lead to the death of the victim and to cannibalism. this is why beak trimming is performed in the poultry industry.
Feather pecking
Dogs show marked territoriality with barking if a strange dog or person enters their territory. Among the behavioral responses is an increase in barking.
Aggression and Other Behavioral Problems in Dogs
exhibit more offensive territorial aggression than other females, with both more barking and a lower pitch of vocalization.
Spayed dogs (example: with both ovaries and uterus surgically removed)
there was a higher incidence than for___,____,___,& ____
Dalmatians, English springer spaniels, German Shepherd dogs, and mixed breeds
lower incidence with _____ and _____
labrador retrievers and golden retrievers
lower incidence of aggression and house soiling in domestic shorthair cats than other breeds but a higher incidence in males overall
Aggression in cats
Reports from _____ indicate that there are breed differences in the number of aggression problems reported by owners. There were also differences in anxiety and phobias.
Cornell University
is a behavior that increases the chances that the male will pass on its genes to as many offspring as possible.
The Coolidge Effect
is the propensity of males to mate with different females. This was named after President Calvin Coolidge (“Silent Cal”), who observed a rooster mating with a series of different hens
The Coolidge or novelty effect
Animals have reproductive behaviors for several distinct reasons, such as the following:
-To increase the chances that the male will pass on its genes to as many offspring as possible
-To increase the chances that the female gametes will be fertilized.
-To restrict mating to within the same species. Reproductive behaviors are often extremely species-specific, with major differences even in closely related species.
-To identify when a female is fertile (at estrus).
-Courtship behaviors before mating to ensure that the female is responsive and in the position to allow mounting (lordosis)
-Mounting, intromission, and insemination.
-Parental behaviors to feed and protect the offspring.
Examples of specific reproductive behaviors include the following:
-Female behaviors to show a male that she is in estrus. Examples include females winking her vulva(horses) or producing specific pheromones(cattle, dogs)
-Male behaviors to encourage an estrous female mammal (or a sexually mature female bird) to be receptive and adopt the position that will allow mating (lordosis). The male behaviors range from circling movements by the rooster that are endearingly called a waltz in chicken, to the boar grunting and producing a pheromone in pigs, to licking and snorting around the genital area in cattle
positioning of the female that will allow mating
lordosis
circling movements by the rooster
Waltz
Examples of behaviors to promote cooling include
-panting
-movement away from a heating source such as a brooder heater for young chicks
-accessing shade for cattle
-wallowing in mud in pigs
Behaviors to assist heating include
-movement toward a heating source
-groups of animals congregating together to share body heat
-making the body profile more compact to reduce heat loss
Communication between members of the same species (intraspecies communication) can be accomplished by the following:
-Auditory detection(hearing)
-Olfactory detection(smelling)
-Visual detection
-Various tactile interactions
such as sows responding by adopting the position of the body to allow mating (lordosis) in response to grunting from boars
Auditory detection (hearing) of vocalization
such as animals marking their territories, or in the flehmen response of bulls to the urine of cows in heat or sows showing lordosis in response to the pheromone from a boar
Olfactory detection (smelling) of pheromones and other scents
such as a submissive positioning in dogs, head movements (head bobbing) in poultry, or stallions responding to the “winking” of the vulva of an estrous mare
Visual detection of signaling movements
such as the neonate stimulating the mammary gland and then the milk letdown response
Various tactile interactions, particularly between offspring and parent
is a large increase in the release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex (or release of corticosterone in poultry)
Classic response to stress
is released in response to the pituitary hormone, adrenocorticotropic hormone, and this in turn is stimulated by the release of corticotrophin-releasing hormone from the hypothalamus, which is in the base of the brain.
Cortisol
can be either physical or physiological
Stress
extremes of temperature and abnormally low blood concentration of glucose.
Physical stress includes
transportation, a new environment, and being handled with or without pain, for example, branding in cattle, dehorning in cattle, tail docking in sheep, and castration
Psychologic stress includes
Approaches to assess whether an animal is stressed, including the following:
- Behavioral indices
- Plasma concentrations of the adrenal stress hormones cortisol (mammals) and corticosterone (birds)
- Production metrics
- Health indices
- Physiologic indices
(e.g.grooming in cats and preening in poultry, aggression, arousal, response to novel stimuli)
Behavioral indices
A good indicator of stress is cortisol in the urine or saliva, and this has the advantage that it avoids the potentially stressful situation of taking a blood sample.
Plasma concentrations of the adrenal stress hormones cortisol (mammals) and corticosterone (birds)
such as growth or milk production (dairy cattle) or egg production (laying hens)
Production metrics
including the frequency of injuries, disease, and mortality because stress impairs the immune response
Health indices
such as heart rate, which is increased by the two catecholamines: the adrenal hormone, epinephrine, and the sympathetic nerve neurotransmitter, norepinephrine
Physiologic indices
By measuring the ________ (or its reciprocal well-being) in animals using a spectrum of measures, it has been possible to demonstrate that in poultry, increased space in cages and the presence of perches improve the well-being of the birds.
level of stress
Reducing stress during handling improves ________
productivity
In areas where animals are handled, ______ should be uniform and diffuse. Shadows and bright spots should be minimized.
illumination
are more sensitive than people to high frequency noises
Cattle and sheep
The sound of hanging metal can cause_____ & ______. Rubber stops on gates and squeeze chutes will help reduce noises
balking and agitation
is the animal’s personal space. when a person enters the flight zone the animals will move away.
Flight zone
If an animal perceives a handling procedure or contact with a person as a ______, stress may increase
threat
the concentration of cortisol increases within minutes of a young or middle-aged horse being placed on a treadmill for an exercise test and stays high for atleast an hour. No such response is observed in aged horses
Stress in horses
When dogs are placed into animal shelters, they appear to be stressed based on the increase in release of cortisol from the adrenal cortex in the first few days. Interaction with people can reduce the stress response.
Stress in Dogs
Dogs perceive loud noises as both _____ and __________.
physical and physiologic stresses
It would seem reasonable to design ______ to reduce stress in dogs
kennels
Behavioral indicators of stress include
-auto-grooming
-paw lifting
-vocalizing(barking)
in well-being include tail wagging and higher posture
can be evaluated in domestic animals.
Temperament
is evaluated in a chute being scored between quiet and calm, and the opposite.
Temperament in cattle
-grew faster than those that were more agitated
cattle that were scored as more tranquil
This is consistent with the growth-impairing effects of stress hormone cortisol not being as pronounced in _____
more tranquil cattle.
Producers are indreasingly holding themselves accountable to consumers. Examples include the:
-Pork Quality Assurance Plus assuring pork safety, swine welfare and good production practices
-and the United Egg Producer’s poultry welfare standards
Third-party welfare assurance has been developed to
-audit production facilities to ensure animal welfare
This focus on animal welfare follows campaigns by activists and standards enunciated by major users of animal products, such as
-Burger King
-Kentucky fried Chicken Corporation
-McDonalds
is increasing its purchase of cage-free eggs and stall-free pork. In addition, it is giving preference to processors that use controlled atmosphere stunning.
Burger King
with more than 5000 restaurants in the United States, has committed to humanely raised poultry, and it audits to ensure that the standards are being met.
Kentucky Fried Chicken Corporation
New standards include
-education and training of poultry personnel
-hatchery operation conditions
-nutrition and feeding
-health care
-adequate space
-routine inspections
-catching and transportation
has requested that the U.S Department of Agriculture and Department of Labor review the feasibility of gas killing chickens as an alternative to current methods
Kentucky Fried Chicken Corporation
Domestic animals, including livestock, poultry, and companion animals, are _______. These animals maintain their deep or core body temperatures within narrow ranges or set points.
Homeotherms
-are homeotherms, but they can also be termed as endotherms because they generate heat.
Domestic animals
they gain heat from the environment
Exotherms
thermoregulate to maintain core body temperatures.
Homeotherms
The site in the body controlling temperature is in the ______, a region of the brain
hypothalamus
-produce heat because of metabolism, that is basal and metabolism related to production such as growth, reproduction, and lactation, activity, and digestion
Homeotherms
lose heat due to the latent heat required to form water vapor. This occurs during respiration and from the skin. It is known as latent or insensible heat loss.
Homeotherms
There is sensible heat loss because of ____, ____, or ______ heat losses to the environment
-conduction
-convection
-radiation
is heat production in a thermoneutral environment at rest and at least 12 hours after the previous meal. Body temperature is measured as deep or core temperature because the temperature at the surface or periphary varies.
Basal metabolic rate
is an endogenous rhythm (within an animal with a periodicity of about 24 hours. It is entrained to exactly 24 hours by environmental factors such as the light-dark cycle.
Circadian Rhythm (circa diēs is about 1 day)
is heat lost because of the evaporation of water. It requires 539 cal to evaporate 1g of water compared with 100 cal to heat the same amount of water from 0°c to 100°c
Evaporative heat loss
is a temporary increase in the body temperature of a person or animal about the set point range due usually to infectious disease.
Fever
is when the temperature of an animal goes above the set point because of extremes of heat and the inability of the physiologic thermoregulatory processes to cope fully
Heat stress
maintain their body temperatures within narrow ranges because of thermoregulation. Mammals and birds are homeotherms. In contrast, reptiles, amphibians, and fish are poikilotherms
Homeotherms
homeotherms
Mammals and birds
poikilotherms
reptiles, amphibians and fish
is when the core body temperature decreases below the normal range
Hypothermia
The heat retained or lost (∆heat) from an animal is the ____
heat balance
∆heat retained/lost or heat balance=heat production for maintenance, growth, reproduction, lactation, and activity -evaporative heat loss(respiration)± heat loss to/gain from the environment from conduction, convection and radiation
Equation
the heat produced by the body is balanced by the
heat lost to the environment
at temperatures above the thermo-neutral zone, mammals or birds lose heat by the following:
-increasing evaporative heat loss
-increased blood flow to the skin (vasodilation)
-behavioral responses such as wallowing in ponds
is equals to respiratory heat loss + evaporative heat losses from the skin via water permeability and sweating
evaporative heat loss
At temperatures below the thermo-neutral zone, mammals or birds respond in 2 overall manners:
- They increase thermogenesis or the production of heat because of the following: increased metabolism(due to thyroid hormones) with both shivering and nonshivering thermogenesis
- They reduce loss of heat by the following:
-Vasoconstriction in the skin and extremities to greatly reduce blood flow and, therefore, lessen loss of heat
-Increased insulation by laying down a layer of fat (poorly conductive of heat) in the skin or increase hair growth before the winter
-Behavioral responses such as increasing the insulation from hair or feathers by ruffling or “puffing up”
is a percentage relative to the maximum humidity at a given temperature
Relative humidity
is a metabolism to increase the body temperature to within the set point range. It can be without shivering (nonshivering thermogenesis) because of increased metabolism, particularly in brown adipose tissue, and shivering thermogenesis by muscle contractions
Thermogenesis
is an environmental temperature where a mammal or bird has to produce or dissipate little heat. Thermo-neutral zones in different species vary but may be as low as 15°C and as high as 35°C
Thermo-neutral zone
Units of heat include:
-British Thermal Unit (BTU)
-Calories (cal)
is the amount of heat required to increase the temperature of 1lb of water by 1°F; 1 BTU equals 1055.06 J
British thermal unit (BTU)
equal the amount of heat required to heat 1 g water by 1°C
Calories or cal
Sources of heat to an animal include:
-sun
-litter or bedding
-other animals
-lights
-mechanical heat from automated auger-type feeders
dogs or poultry
Panting
horse;anhydrosis
sweating
cats
licking their surface
pigs
wallowing in mud
-promotes evaporative heat loss
Panting
Thermal panting involves
increases not only in the rate of breathing (respiration rate) but also in the depth of breathing (tidal volume)
reduces the concentration of carbon dioxide/bicarbonate in the blood and increases the blood pH
The increased ventilation
Kilocalorie (or kcal) equals how many cal?
1000 cal
kcal equals how many kilojoules? (international system of units)
4.187 kj
Rate of heating kcal/hour
1 kcal/hour equals 1.16 W (watts)
is the combined effect of wind and low temperatures
Windchill
respiratory evaporative heat loss is equals to
respiratory minute volume × latent heat of vaporization of water × (g water per liter of expired air-[relative humidity of inspired air × g water per liter of air saturated at ambient environmental temperature])
As the temperature increases more and more water can be carried in air
Therefore, as the temperature gets close to body temperature and/or humidity close to 100%, there is a problem because respiratory heat loss tends toward zero, and cooling does not occur
Without cooling, heat stress can occur. This can lead to:
-loss of appetite
-decrease in or even arrest of growth or reproduction, or
-death
Heat loss can be either
-sensible (conduction, convention, and radiation) or
-latent or insensible (water vapor)
is a mechanism for cooling
Sweating
have few sweat glands in the skin
Pigs
have sweat glands in their paws
Dogs and cats
have many sweat glands, and after exercise, they show marked sweating to reduce their temperature
Horses
Horses with a condition ______ have an inability to sweat normally, and have trouble dealing with the increase in body temperature during and after exercise
anhydrosis
it is essential that domestic animals have access to clean and cool drinking ______. This becomes progressively more important as the temperature increases
Water
It is important to provide _____ for domestic animals when maintained outside. This can include a sunshade to protect animals from intense sunlight and high temperatures. Temperatures in the shade are quite a bit lower than those in the sun
Shelter
animals need ______. Without adequate ventilation, there is a buildup of noxious chemicals such as ammonia in the air. Moreover, ventilation removes humidity from the air around the animal.
Ventilation
At higher temperatures, animals reduce their temperature by the process of
evaporation of water
At high humidities, evaporation _____ with there being no not evaporation at 100% humidity.
decreases
is important at all temperatures but critically important at high environmental temperatures.
Ventilation
Extremely low temperature can lead to
-reduced performance in livestock
-frostbite
-hypothermia
-death
Windchill’s 2 deletarious effects
-frostbite
-tremendous wasteful loss of the dietary energy for the maintenance of body temperature.
the freezing of body tissues
frostbite
Providing _____ for range animals, shelter for dogs and horses, or complete confinement prevents some or all of the problems associated with low temperature and windchill
windbreaks
combined effect of wind and low temperatures
Windchill
For animals maintained outdoors, provision must be made for a water supply that does not freeze
Water
is equally important for animals exposed to cold weather. Windbreaks developed from stands of trees can reduce the problem of windchill. Placing animals in open feedlots such that they can congregate together reduces temperature loss
Shelter
When animals are reared in confinement facilities with environmental control and ventilation, they are not subjected to the extremes of temperature.
Confinement
