Animal Phys (11.1-4) Flashcards
1
Q
What do bones and exoskeletons do?
A
Anchor muscles and act as levers
2
Q
What are synovial joints
A
Capsules that surround and enclose the point of contact between two bones
3
Q
Three main components of synovial joints
A
- Joint capsule: seals joints to prevent dislocation
- Cartilage: covers bones to prevent friction
- Synovial fluid: provides lubrication (reduces friction)
4
Q
Annotate the diagram of a human elbow
A
8-8
5
Q
What do muscles do?
A
Contract to provide the force needed for movement
6
Q
Explain the antagonistic nature of skeletal muscle
A
-Skeletal muscle exist in antagonistic pairs
-This enables opposing movements at a joint
-When one muscle contracts the antagonistic muscle relaxes
e.g Bicep contracts the triceps relaxes
7
Q
Describe antagonistic pairs of muscle in an insect leg
A
-A flexor contracts to cause the hind leg to bend and prepare the insect to push off the ground
-An extensor contracts to cause the hind leg to straighten, causing the insect to actually launch
-As one contracts the other relaxes
8
Q
How are Skeletal muscles organized?
A
Skeletal muscle consists of muscular bundles surrounded by connective tissue
-Each bundle contains multiple muscle fibers, formed from fused muscle cells
-Fibres contain many myofibrils that are arranged into repeating sarcomeres
- Sacromere < myofibrils < Fibres < bundle < muscle
9
Q
Features of muscle Fibres
A
-Multinucleated: Fibres are formed from the fusion of individual muscle cells
-Many mitochondria: Muscle contraction requires significant ATP expenditure
-Sarcoplasmic reticulum: Internal membrane network is specialized (Ca2+)
-Myofibrils: Tubular myofibrils run the length of a fiber to cause contraction
Myofibrils are composed of actin and myosin myofilaments (estirad)
10
Q
What does Myofibrils consist of?
A
repeating contractile units called sarcomeres
11
Q
What does Sarcomeres contain?
A
-Thick myosin filaments flanked by thin actin filaments (both anchored by Z discs)
-Movement of the thin filament along the thick filament causes contraction
12
Q
Draw a labeled diagram of the structure of a sacromere
A
1_1
13
Q
What are binding sites on actin in relaxed muscles blocked by?
A
regulatory protein: Tropomyosin
14
Q
When motor neuron sends a signal for contraction what is released and from where?
A
Calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum
15
Q
What does muscle contraction involve the sliding of?
A
Myofilaments
16
Q
Outline the contraction of muscle by sliding of actin and myosin filament
A
-ATP binds to the myosin head, breaking the cross bridge
-ATP hydrolysis causes the myosin head to swivel (change angle) THe heads store potential energy from ATP
-The myosin head binds to the next actin binding site further from the center of the sarcomere
-ADP and phosphate is released and the head pushes actin towards the centre of the sarcomere
17
Q
Why does muscle contraction require significant ATP expenditure
A
-ATP hydrolysis breaks the cross bridge and re-orients the myosin heads
18
Q
How would you detect state of muscle contraction in an electron micrograph?
A
Sliding of filaments causes the sarcomere to shorten and muscle contracts
-Light bands become narrower, whereas dark bands stay the say
19
Q
What nitrogenous waste does aquatic animals excrete
A
Ammonia
20
Q
What nitrogenous waste does birds and reptiles excrete
A
Uric acid
21
Q
What nitrogenous waste products does mammals excrete
A
Urea
22
Q
How do amphibians release ammonia
A
As larva and release urea after metamorphosis
23
Q
What is the flow of energy regarding nitrogenous I waste?
A
Requires energy to convert ammonia into urea, and even more to uric acid
24
Q
What is the benefit of uric acid?
A
It is water insoluble, can be expelled without water
25
What are the two ways animals maintain water balance?
Osmoconformers
Osmoregulators
26
What is Osmoconformers
Match their osmolality to the environment
-Requires less energy to achieve osmolality
27
What are osmoregulators
-Maintain a constant internal osmolarity
-provides independence from environment
28
What is a Hemolymph
Characteristics of tissue fluid and blood
29
Outline the Malpighian Tubule system
Insects have a fluid circulatory system called the hemolymph (like blood system in humans)
- The hemolymph is connected to the digestive tract and branches from the stomach as Malpighian tubes collecting nitrogenous wastes and water
- Tubules carries these products to the gut combining with digestive products.
- Solutes water and salts are reabsorbed into the hemolymph at the hindgut, bu the nitrogenous wastes are defecated
30
Draw a labelled diagram of the human kidney
-Cortex
-Medulla
-Renal artery
-Renal Vein
Renal pelvis
-Ureter
Check the note for the functions and drawing
31
Draw a labelled diagram of the nephron
Glmerulus+Bowman's Capsule
Convoluted Tubules (proximal/distal)
Loop of Henle+Collecting duct
Vasa Recta (blood network)
32
What are the 3 key processes via which nephrons excrete waste and regulate water levels
-Ultrafiltration: Blood is filtered at the Bowman's capsule to form a filtrate
-Selective reabsorption: Usable content is reabsorbed by convoluted tubules
-osmoregulation- Salt gradient is established in the medulla to retain water
33
High pressure in capillaries of the glomerulus force what fluid out?
Glomerular filtrate
34
Define Utrafiltration?
Most solutes are filtered out but most proteins are not. Separation of particles differing in nanometers is called ultrafiltration.
35
Three key components of Ultrafiltration
-Fenestrations: 100nm fenestrations (small holes) between cells allows fluid but not red blood cells to escape
-basement membrane ('Filtration'): Non specifically restricts passage of large materials (cells and proteins)
-Podocytes: Creates very narrow gaps to prevent large molecules from being filtered out
36
What is the second excretory process that occurs in the nephorn
Selective reabsorption
37
Where in the nephron does selective reabsorption occur
Proximal convoluted tubule (sometime occurs in distal tubule)
-Tubule walls are lined with microvilli and connected by tight junctions (no gaps)
38
What is actively absorbed in selective reabsorption
-Sodium ions actively transported from filtrate to outside the tubule
-Chloride ions follow sodium due to charge gradient of sodium ions
-Organic nutrients (glucose, amino acids) are co-transported with sodium ions
water will consequently follow the movement of the mineral ions (via passive osmosis)
39
what is the third Excretory process that occurs in the nephron
osmoregulation
(It is the control of water balance in the blood, tissue or cytoplasm of a cell)
40
Outline osmoregulation's role in the nephron
-Loop of Henle establishes a high salt concentration (hypertonic) in the medulla which draws water out of the filtrate to be retained within the bloodstream
-The collecting ducts contain channels that control the amount of water retention
|this expression fo these channels (aquaporin) is regulated by hormone ADH
The amount of water retention will determine the concertation of the urine
41
what do the Loop of Henle do?
establish a salt gradient
42
Outline the structure and function of the loop of Henle
-Descending limb is permeable to water (not salts) and so the filtrate becomes more hypertonic in the medulla (water is lost)
-Ascending limb is permeable to salts (but not water) and so the filtrate becomes less hyper in the cortex (loses salt)
43
Outline the function of the Vasa Recta
The blood within the vasa recta flows in an opposite direction tot he filtrate flowing in the loop of Henle
-Salts (from ascending limb) move towards medulla
-Water (from descending limb) move towards cortex
This countercurrent exchange acts to concentrate the salts within the deep medulla (ensuring it is hypertonic)
-The salt gradient serves to draw water (via osmosis) from the collecting ducts (controls water retention)
44
What does the length of loop of Henle determine?
Salt gradient and influences water conservation
(larger salt gradient means more water reabsorbed)
45
What is the length of the loop of Henle in aquatic animals?
short (less reabsorption)
46
What is the length of the loop of Henle in desert animals?
Long (more reabsorption)
47
What does release of ADH do?
Increase the permeability of the ducts to water and therefore increases the reabsorption of water into bloodstream
48
What does dehydration do?
will lower blood pressure and inhibit sweating [lethargy]
49
what does overhydration do?
may cause tissue damage 9 due to cell swelling) [Headache]
50
Composition of Blood in the real artery is different from that in the renal vein
memorize the chart in the note 0_0
51
presence of what in urine indicates disease and why?
Kidney is suppose to prevent excretion of some materials
-Glucose: diabetes
-Proteins: Kidney damage
-Blood cells: Infections or cancer
-Drugs/toxin: drug use
52
what is Hemodialysis
Involves external filtering of the blood, removed and pumped through a dialyzer
53
What is kidney transplant
involve the replacement of a defective kidney with one from a genetic match
54
What causes kidney failure?
Untreated kidney diseases
55
What is Gametogenesis
Process by which haploid sex cells (gametes) are formed
-In males, the process is called spermatogenesis and produces spermatozoa
-In females, the process is called oogenesis and produces ova (eggs)
56
Where does Gametogenesis occur
In gonads
57
Outline the process of gametogenesis
-Multiple mitotic divisions and cell growth of precursor germ cells
-Two meiotic divisions (meiosis I and II) to produce haploid daughter cells
-differentioation of the haploid daughter cells to produce functional gametes
58
Where does Spermatogenesis occur?
In the seminiferous tubules of the testes (male gonads)
59
How many gametes are produced per germ cell which differentiate into sperm
Four
60
Duration of Spermatogenesis
Continuous (slows with age)
61
Annotate a diagram of seminiferous tubule and ovary to show the stages of Gametogenesis
-Sertoli cell
-Basement membrane
-Spermatogonia 2n
-1 Spermatocyte 2n
-2 Spermatocyte n
-Spermatid n
62
Where does oogenesis begin?
In the ovaries of a female fetus
63
what happens to germ cells in Oogenesis?
Divide by mitosis
64
Outline the process of Oogenesis
-germ cells grow and divide by mitosis and a single layer of cells grow around them called follicle cells, to form a primary follicle. No further development occurs until puberty.
-Primary follicles are released during menstruation and one can develop into the mature follicle containing the secondary oocyte
65
Annotate the diagram of Ovaries
THERE IS SO MUCH CONTENT
66
Contrast Spermatogenesis and oogenesis
Occurs in testes---------------------Occurs in Ovaries
4 gametes (sperm)------------------1 Gamete (ovum) plus 3 polar bodies
Equal division of cells----------------Unequal division of cytoplasm
Occurs continuously--------------------Occurs in stages
Lifelong process infinite----------------Ends at Menopause (finite)
67
Annotate Sperm
I am forgetting all the contents!!!
68
Annotate Egg (Animal phys)
he stabs him
69
What is Fertilization (animal phys)
the fusion of egg and sperm to form a diploid zygote
70
External Fertilization of animals
Aquatic Animals release gametes directly into water with many risks such as predation, temperature, pH and Pollution
71
Internal Fertilization of Animals
Zygotes protected from environment inside the mother. Terrestrial animals releasing gametes into environment would dry out
72
How is Polyspermy prevented?
Acrosome reaction
|To enter the egg, sperm must penetrate the glycoprotein coat (Zona Pellucida)
-The perm binds to zona pellucida
-The acrosome cap releases enzymes which soften the glycoprotein matrix
Penetration of the Egg membrane
|The acrosome reaction exposes an area of the membrane at the tip fo the sperm that has proteins to bind to the egg membrane
-The first sperm through the zona pellucida can then fuse with the egg and transfer its nucleus
Cortical Reaction
|The cortical reaction occurs once the sperm has penetrated the egg in order to to prevent polyspermy
-Cortical granules release enzymes that act to destroy sperm binding proteins on the jelly coat
-Enzymes also thicken and harden the glycoprotein matrix of the jelly coat
73
What happens to a zygote post fertilization
-undergoes multiple equal mitotic division to form a morula
-Unequal division of the morula will result in the formation fo the bastocyst
74
What happens to Blastocyst after 7 days
The zona pellucida breaks down and the outer blastocyst develops cilia to implant itself onto the uterus lining (implantation)
the blastocyst exchanges material with the mother's blood and grows + develops
75
What happens to blastocyst after 8 weeks
Bone tissue forms and the embryo is considered a fetus and soon visible male or female
76
Role of HCG in early preg
Early pregnancy embryo produces HCG which stimulates the corpus Luteum within the ovary to keep producing progesterone and estrogen
77
What do the Placenta do
Nourishes a developing embryo
78
What is the Placenta made of
Fetal tissue in contact with maternal tissues in uterine wall
79
Festus also forms what to support and protect the developing fetus
Ammonitic sac which contains amniotic fluids
80
What do the Pacental villus do?
Increases in number during pregnancy to cope increasing demands
Extent into intervillous spaces and exchange material between the mum and fetus
81
Where does the Meteranl Blood flow
in the Intervillous space
82
What separates maternal and fetal blood
Placental barrier made of cells
83
Is the placenta Selectively permeable?
True
84
What doe mum give the fetus
oxygen, Nutrients, Vitamins and antibodies
85
What do the Fetus give the mum
Wastes (carbon dioxide, urea) & dissapointment
water flows in both direction mum and fetus
86
What do the Fetus give the mum
Wastes (carbon dioxide, urea) & disappointment
water flows in both direction mum and fetus
87
What is the Placenta responsible for?
Mat exchange and Hormonal maintenance
-
88
What Happens to the placenta after 9 weeks
Takes over hormone production form the corpus luteum
89
What happens if the Placenta fails to overthrow the Corpus Luteum
Miscarriage
90
Relationship between mass and gestation period
Bigger the size longer the preg, so positive correlation
91
What happens when Progesterone inhibits oxytocin secretion
inhibits the contractions of the muscular outer wall of the uterus the myometrium
92
Outline Birth controlled by positive feed back loop
-Oxytocin simulates myometrium to contract
-Detected by stretch receptors and send signals to the brain
-Oxytocin is released from the posterior pituitary
-Oxytocin causes myometrium to contract which further stretches the uterine walls
93
What do unique molecular marker on cells of multicellular organisms do?
Identify the cells as being part of the organism
94
Examples of Molecular markers on cells
-Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) proteins on all nucleated human cells
-ABO blood group system present on red blood cells (no nucleated)
95
What does the ABO blood system mean?
Certain protein markers present on red blood cells that makes blood (A, B, AB, O) types
96
What is Humoral Immunity
The targeting of external antigens by B lymphocytes
-B lymphocytes will produce antibodies that are specific to the given antigen
97
How are B lymphocytes activated?
-Innate immune cells engulf pathogens and present antigens to T Hcells
-Activated T Hcells release cytokines to trigger the right B lymphocyte
98
What is Clonal selection?
Only B cells that make antibodies specific to an antigen activate
99
Outline the activation of B cells
Activated B cells divide and multiply to form many clones
-Most clones turn into short lived plasma cells
-A small amount develop into long living memory cells
100
How does Antibodies destroy pathogens?
-Opsonization: pathogens made more recognizable
-Agglutination: Pathogens become clumped
-Neutralization: Pathogenic regions blocked
|Pathogens: prevents viruses from docking to cells
|Toxins: Prevents toxins from binding to cells
-Complement Activation: Compliment proteins bind to pathogens and poke a hole spilling its guts
101
How does long term immunity work?
Long term immunity depends on the persistence of memory cells
-Memory cells react faster and with greater potency to a reinfection
-Disease symptoms do not develop upon re exposure
102
Modes of Transmission
-Direct contact
-Exchange of Bodily fluids 0_0
-Contamination
-Airborne
-Animals (Zoonosis)
103
What are vaccines
Weakened forms of pathogens that triggers an immune response but does not cause the disease
104
How does Vaccines work?
--Triggers a primary immune response, producing memory cells
--When exposed to the pathogen a secondary immune response is initiated
--The more potent response prevents the development of disease
105
What is a vaccines duration of effect depended on?
Survival of memory cells
106
What can be done to replenish memory cells?
Booster shots
107
How can Non-vaxxed individuals be protected
Herd immunity
108
What is an Epidemic?
Increased number of infection within a given region
109
What is a pandemic?
Epidemics that has spread across a large geographical area
110
What was the first infectious disease in humans eradicated
Small Pox
111
What does Histamines do?
Dilation of blood vessels in infected areas to increase the blood flow and recruit white blood cells
112
What secretes Histamines?
-Whiteblood cells in response to infections
113
What causes Allergic symptoms
Histamines
114
What are Monoclonal antibodies
Antibodies that are artificially derived from a lone B cell clone
115
How are Monoclonal Antibodies produced
-An animal is injected with an antigen to produce antigen specific plasma cells
-Plasma cells are fused with tumor cells capable of infinite divisions
-Resulting Hybridoma cells produce endless amounts of monoclonal antibodies
116
Diagnostic use of Monoclonal antibodies
preg test
-hCG and monoclonal antibodies are used in a process called ELISA
