Ancient Flashcards
The physical environment: The geographical setting, natural features and resources of Pompeii and Herculaneum
GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING
Campania- fertile, volcanic plain.
Vesuvius dominates plain. P and H are from volcanic spurts and mounds
Region mineral rich in volcanic soils- supports vines, olives, fruit and sheep
Pompeii was 500m from the coast. Stabiae on one side and Herc on the other
Herculaneum was on bay- 16km North East of Pompeii
“ Then indeed there is that wonderful and life-sustaining and healthy atmosphere that lasts all the year through.” PLINY THE ELDER- NATURAL HISTORY
NATURAL FEATURES:
Pompeii: Situated on raised area (prehistoric lava flow) Natural bay- site for port Sarno river→ water and shiping Fertile land → farming estates Hot springs nearby
Herculaneum: Volcanic plateau→ South west of Mt V 2 streams→ East and West Small harbours→ down in river bays, Sheer cliff over sea
RESOURCES:
Pompeii: Water from Sarno river Market gardens, orchards, vineyards Fish in sea → EVIDENCE FROM FISH MOSAIC Fertile lands→ agriculture, grazing Port, estuary shipping
Herculaneum:
Water available from streams
Limited port facilities
Main coast road running through straight across town
Plans and streetscapes of Pompeii and Herculaneum
POMPEII:
P covers 66 ha. (Surrounded by defensive walls)
Grid pattern not as precisely applied
Greek influence: Layout of streets and roads that divided towns into Insulae
Early history: Defensive stone walls and 8 gateways leading to town
When P became a Roman colony- some sections of walls were knocked down for housing. Lost importance
Roman paving techniques: Raised footpaths on either side of road
Stepping stones provided for pedestrian use. Still have access to wheeled traffic
Larger manufacturing town
Amphitheatre: 20,000 people. Problem with social crisis
Vineyards inside and outside
HERCULANEUM:
Herc: Follows Classical Greek layout. Straight streets divide town into Insulae
Sea walls- large vaulted chambers for boats
Streets had less traffic
More efficient drainage and sewer systems
Roman Law: streets minimum of 5m wide. P met this, but H had 2.5 m in some areas
Narrower streets; less people, no need for carts, smaller trading centre, not manufacturing town
About ⅓ size of P (12-20 ha)
No stepping stones
Remains of double story houses- carbonised timber. People lived upstairs and shops downstairs
“A confused jumble of shops, workshops, crafts, residential and horticultural plots across the whole city” ANDREW WALLACE HADRILL
BOTH:
Via→ main highway
Decumani→ Roads running East to West
Cardines → Roads running North to South
Materials → volcanic; tufa and basalt
Street names→ modern construct E.g. Via Del Abbondanza
Water fountains at intersections/ Leadpipes for water (lead poisoning)
The limitations, reliability and evaluation of sources
LIMITATIONS:
Gaps in evidence
Nature of ancient society: gaps about lower class women- no records, few possessions, not written about
Destruction of Eruption
Looting and destruction of sites
Mainly political→ surviving sources
Gaps encouraging romanticizing and speculation. E.g. House of Surgeon
RELIABILITY:
Need to ask context and purpose of sources
Pliny- assumed to be eye witness but letters written from memory years later→ motivated by Pliny’s desire to glorify role of uncle
Graffiti- reveals bias
Commemorative inscriptions usually bias- highlight only positive things about person
EVALUATION:
Consider context in which source was produced
Purpose and perspective of author
How source relates to social and political context
The evidence provided by the sources from Pompeii and Herculaneum for:
The eruption
Warnings:
Earthquake of 62 AD→ First warning sign Vesuvius returning to life
“Pompeii, the famous city of Campania, has been laid low by an earthquake”- SENECA- NATURALES, VI
24 August morning→ larger waves than normal, tremors increased intensity, animals agitated, minor steam explosions from V showered fine ash
General info: Pliny→ 24th August (some historians believe it occurred in November) Pompeii → more pumice fallout 1st surge → covers Herculaneum 4th surge onwards → Covers Pompeii
PLINIAN PHASE:
Late morning to early afternoon (umbrella shaped cloud moves East)
Accumulation of pumice over P
Day turns into night
By 8pm- heavy pumice fallouts, tremors and electrical storms
“A cloud of unusual size and appearance…It’s general appearance can be best described as being like an umbrella pine…” PLINY THE YOUNGER- LETTERS TO TACITUS
Some Pompeians fled immediately
Many sheltered in sealed rooms and cellars (never escaped)
Herc- many escaped by sea.
Pliny the elder launched a warship to sail across the bay- reached Stabiae
PELEAN PHASE:
1am-8am (25th Aug) Towns of Vesuvius hit by 6 surges ( billowing ash and superheated gases) and flows (volcanic fragments made fluid by high temps)
Herc waited on beach to be rescued- but died in S1 from asphyxiation and thermal shock
Herc sealed forever in S2
Pompeii- People who left it too late were cut down, trampled and felled by masonry. Asphyxiated by ash
Pliny the Elder died on beach in Stabiae- Pliny the Younger and mother escaped Misenum just before the final surge
Most would have died from asphyxiation and thermal shock within 2 minutes of surge
“Respiratory tracts would have become blocked with a plug of mucus and ash or their bodies ‘baked’ in the intense heat.” DR ESTELLE LAZAR
Pyroclastic surge→ Low density, cloud of hot ash and rock; billows over terrain, barely touching ground. Travels at high speeds (up to 300km per hour)
Pyroclastic flow→ Much denser, hotter, dry avalanche of ground hugging molten rock, pumice and gases. Moved slower (50kms per hour)
6 layers in strata → 6 pyroclastic surges
Deaths in Pompeii and Herculaneum
POMPEII
Some fled immediately → May have survived if reached safe distance
600 people killed→ roofs collapsed under weight of pumice and rock
People climbed onto roofs→ asphyxiation
People breathed in- very fine ash formed sticky paste, clogged lungs- couldn’t breathe
“Most deadly surge (4th surge) occurred at approx 7.30 am- 25th August, killing all who remained in the city. Described burning wind filled with dust and ash that filled the lungs instantly choking and killing all in its path.” HAROLD SIGURDSON
Sigurdson→ 6th surge; strongest, widespread, killed many who attempted to flee
HERCULANEUM
Italian scholars → people died thermal shock
Brains boiled, skulls exploded; intense heat.
Blackened skulls with brain matter
300 people in boat sheds→ still alive 12 hours after 1st blast
Those exposed to 500℃→ dead instantly
“These individuals do not display any evidence of voluntary self-protective reaction or agony.” ALBERTO INCORONATO- UNIVERSITY OF NAPLES
Tooth enamel cracked, charring on bones (flesh vapourised)
Initial vapourisation→ sudden drop in ash temp
Fists clenched in pugilistic pose
The economy:
- Trade,
- Commerce,
- Industries,
- Occupations
TRADE
Pompeii commercial trading town. Harbour busy with ships. Herc not so much
Imports→ Wine and pottery
Exports→ Pottery, tiles, garum. wine, olives, bread, grapes
Traded with Egyptians and Greek (Temple of Isis) Gladiators, slaves
COMMERCE Most streets had shops Evidence of weighing tables, coins (sesterces) Rent, taxes collected Receipts made → wax tablets
INDUSTRIES/OCCUPATIONS
Bakeries (Frescoe of baker and his wife)
Perfume industry (Frieze from House of the Vetti brothers→ cupids making perfume)
Taverns/ Bars/ Brothels
Agriculture→ produced wool, grain, grapes, olives
Fullers/ Dyers → Statue dedicated to Eumachia
Fishmongers→ Garum tanks, fish tanks, seafood mosaic
Actors/Musicians→ Theatre
Markets (Macellum)- aediles→ forum
Food shops → Thermopolium, tabernae
Social structure; men, women, freedmen, slaves
SENATORIAL ELITE
Top of social pyramid→ visited area, had villas
Along coast near Stabiae→ aristocracy constructed grand villas
LOCAL ELITE
Wealthy traders, businessmen
Dominated towns councils → filled key municipal offices
Sought to imitate lives of senators
Wealth rather than aristocratic birth gave positions → over years traditions of office holdings established them as leaders of society
Below this class→ ordinary traders, artisans, shopkeepers, farmers with small holdings
THE POPULUS (CITIZEN BODY)
Freeborn men of Roman background, were citizens of P & H
Citizens formed the populus
Could vote at Rome in the tribus Menenia, a voting ‘tribe’
WOMEN
No vote, couldn’t hold public office or sit on town council
Pompeian women → active role in political life on town
Could be educated→ could own property
Family wealth and inheritance→ women become wealthy
Husband could leave wife business to run
Women could own and let out property
“ She keeps copies of my books to read again and again.” PLINY THE YOUNGER
SLAVES AND FREEDMEN
Slaves were everywhere, owned by householders, imperial family, estate owners, businessmen
Sold in business transactions → wax tablets preserved,
Freedmen sometimes became wealthy- bought own slaves
“I suspect she was a slave. There are scars on the upper shafts of her humeri…that means she used these bones for heavier work than she should have.” S.C. BISEL- HEALTH AND NUTRITION AT HERCULANEUM
Local political life
Problems interpreting political graffiti→ fragments, ambiguous, some written by professional signwriters
Dating→ No indications of what year notice dates from
Group support for candidates “All the mat makers (tegettari) together beg of you to make Lollius aedile.” (CIL IV: 747)
Only males voted- some not thought worthy of that right (actors, innkeepers)
Electoral notices (epigraphic sources) → most people (including women) politically aware
Pompeii- political activity intense: “Competition for office was so fierce it was harder to gain a seat in the City Council of Pompeii than in the Roman Senate.” CICERO
Executive → Board of 4 ( 2 pairs of duoviri and aediles)
Every 5 years magistrates conducted census
Duoviri→ Administered city (roads, markets, sewer) Maintained order and sponsorship of spectacles and theatre. Responsible for criminal and civil cases
Aediles → Daily administration, roads, public buildings, temples, markets, games
Curia (council) → Controlled all aspects of public life, finances, taxation, public religion, gave instructions to Board
Every march→ election fever, candidates supporters write slogans on walls, women influenced voters
Everyday life:
- Leisure activities,
- Food and dining,
- Clothing,
- Health,
- Baths,
- Water supply and sanitation
LEISURE Cock/ Rooster fighting Gladiator battles Baths→ social interactions Amphitheatre Exercise → Palaestra Banqueting → social interactions Brothels (26)
FOOD AND DINING
Favoured pastimes→ banqueting at home, poorer classes ate in taverns (100 found in Pompeii)
Well rounded, balanced diet (healthy)
Basis→ seafood
Red meat, fresh produce, variety of fruits (orchids)
Tabernae→ wine, fast food outlets
Bakeries→ thermopolium, jars
HEALTH
Lazar- Teeth ground flat from gritty bread
Cleanliness from baths, access to clean water, pipes/aqueduct
Lead pipes→ lead poisoning
Calcium from fish
Palaestra→ exercise
Public toilets→ removal of waste
CLOTHING
Linen came from Egypt, wool made locally
Imprint of fabric in plaster casts
Everyone wore sandals, Only slaves wore hats
Fuller’s→ washed clothes, used urine as bleach
BATHS Frigidarium → cold Tepidarium → warm Caldarium → Hot Social activity→ no privacy issues Oil applied to body and scraped off with strigil Slaves, underfloor heating
WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION
Aqueduct transport water
Castellum→ water storage
Aqueduct → Castellum → (public baths, fountains, toilets, private homes of wealthy)
Herc→ more efficient drainage system
No privacy in toilets → scrubbing brush shared
Good sanitation→ cleanliness and health
Public buildings
- Basilicas,
- Temples,
- Forum
- Theatres,
- Palaestra,
- Amphitheatres
Basilica
Most elaborate structure in forum→ where legal and business activities took place
Large hall, 2 storey tribunal built on west side, lower floor→ archives, upper floor→ platform for judges
Temples
Very religious, prayed, made daily offerings, sacrifices
10 found at Pompeii, 0 at Herculaneum→ dedicated to Apollo, Isis, Jupiter, Venus etc
Forum
Large rectangular space (where majority of political, administrative, legal, commercial, religious and social activities took place)
Election of magistrates, religious ceremonies, latest news from rome announcements, trade in goods (grain, cloth, wool) markets, hire of lawyers/doctors,
Pompeii→ forum central focus. North side; temple to Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. Southside; government buildings. West side; Basilica, temple of Apollo. East side; Fish and meat markets
Theatre
Pompeii; Large Theatre (seated 5000), smaller Odeon. Lower tiers, clad in marble→ reserved for elite. Performances→ plays, farces, pantomimes. Odeon→ roofed, acoustics good for poetry readings, concerts
Herc→ small temple located at centre, freestanding structure
Palaestra
Colonnaded rectangular areas→ open grassed space in middle (greek influence)
Exercises, running, discus, javelin competitions. Swimming pool located next to it
Amphitheatre
Used for games; gladiatorial battles (honour the gods), hunts/battles ft wild animals,
Whoever paid for games became more popular→ political purpose
Private buildings
- Villas,
- Houses,
- Shops
VILLAS
Large, luxurious, multi-roomed on outskirts of Pompeii and Herculaneum
Also built on coast, owned by wealthy citizens of Rome. E.g. Villa of the Papyri-Herc
HOUSES
Domus/atrium house, atrium-peristyle house, insulae or apartment house, villas
Domus/atrium→ most popular type of house, free standing homes, owned by senatorial or equestrian class
Atrium→ Peristyle centerpiece of wealthy homes. Peristyle gave access to dining/living room
Insulae/apartment→ multi-storied apartments. Not common “Change over time, with a movement from the late republican houses to multiple small independent units” AWH
SHOPS
Most shops located on Via del Abbondanza
Many were rented front rooms of large private houses
Some had back rooms for storage, counters on inside, shelves, Taverns had chairs, tables
Influence of Greek and Egyptian cultures: art, architecture, religion
Greek influences→ directly from Greek colonies established in South Italy 7th-6th BC
Hellenistic influences→ From Rome’s conquest and trade with Hellenistic kingdoms of Egypt from 2nd century BC
Trade between Campania and Alexandria (Egyptian port city) → Influence and Alexandrian craftsmen and foreign workers settled in Campania
Toponym of Herculaneum → Greek after Greek hero Herakles
Hellenisation→ architectural innovations e.g. high vestibules, wide atriums, peristyles, large gardens
Columns in House of the Vetti brothers→ Replicated three orders of Greek columns
Mosaic panels in House of the Faun→Represented colourful word of Greek theatre
Adaptations of Greek gods worshipped publicly and privately in P and H
Mystery cults of Bacchus → introduced from Greece + Cult of Isis → originating in Egypt, worshipped publicly and privately (offered more emotional bond with gods)
Greek and Eastern slaves in estates, households and taverns. Many prostitutes were Egyptian
Pompeian theatre→ traditional Greek tragedies and comedies performed
Palaestra (greek gymnasia) → copies of Greek statues of young athletes
Religion:
- Temples,
- Household gods,
- Foreign cults,
- Tombs
Religion greatly influenced by Greeks→ greek gods adopted and adapted to suit Roman needs
“The most characteristic feature of Roman religion was its essentially political orientation” E. Cantarella
Each citizen→ political duty to carry out correct rituals to gods (sacrifice and prayer)–> ensure prosperity, good luck, protection for state and people
TEMPLES
Pompeii → approx 10 major temples found in or near Forum. Herc→ 0
Altars found→ suggest sacrifices
Capitolium temple→ Temple of Jupiter; Inside were gods Jupiter, Juno, Minerva→ temple dominated Pompeian forum
Temple of Venus→ oldest and largest. Venus patron goddess of Pompeii
Near forum→ temple of Fortuna Augusta→ held statues of Augustus. → Worship of imperial family was important
Worship of God Apollo introduced into P during 6th century BC. Temple of Apollo, most ancient sanctuary
HOUSEHOLD GODS
Paterfamilias→ Head of household (oldest male) in charge of private rituals inside home
Lares: Protectors of household
Lararium; Shrine to lares → Every shop/home had one. Could be wall niche with figurines(poor) 3D miniature temple lined with marble or painted statuettes (rich) Could be wall painted with gods
Each day/special monthly celebrations→ offerings of wreath or portion of meal to lares, prayers for protection and prosperity said.
Family ancestors honoured and represented as wax masks kept in house.
FOREIGN CULTS
Imperial cult→ Introduced at time of Augustus as new homage
Cult of Isis→ Popular among women→ offered happiness, salvation, consolation from suffering→ 2 daily services at Temple of Isis→ evidence of wall paintings in temple featured Egyptian landscapes, mythology, priests performing their duties
Temple of Isis→ paintings, decorations, furniture→ one of the first buildings to have been totally restored after earthquake→ significance of cult
Cult of Bacchus/Dionysus→ Dionysus (Greek god wine and fertility) first popular than in South Italy became popular as cult of Bacchus→ offered “An escape from worldly reality into mystic communion with the god and the promise of blessed life after death.”L. ZARMATI
TOMBS
Not hidden→ constructed alongside busiest streets and outside walls
8 Necropolises outside walls of Pompeii→ ‘city of dead’ or cemetery
Tombs rarely belonged to individual→ popular to have niches for urns of all the household
Up to paterfamilias→ make sure anyone died in family received proper burial rites to prevent them living on in next life as malevolent entities.
Poor or people with no families→ belonged to funeral club → ensured cremation
Tombs could be plain brick chamber, flat roof or elaborate with sculpted monument
Tombs→ reminded passers by of achievements and social status of dead
Inscriptions provide info about upper levels of society, freedmen, slaves→ must be remembered, people only inscribed what they considered important and what they wanted others to read
Changing methods and contributions of nineteenth and twentieth century archaeologists to our understanding of Pompeii and Herculaneum
Pre-19th Century (treasure hunting period, artefacts destroyed)
Count d’Eleouf (1709)
Workmen sunk a shaft → Reached level of stage in ancient theatre
Mined theatre if marble states→ many pieces given to European royalty
Shafts and tunnels dug, gunpowder used→ little care for destruction
Shaft entrances eventually sealed→ difficult to penetrate solidified volcanic material
Charles VII/ De Alcubierre (1732- 1748)
King appointed him to resume excavations at Herc- 1748 no treasure found so dug at Pompeii
Dug more tunnels out from ancient theatre→ broke through painted walls, tunneled through houses, destroyed artefacts,excavated randomly- kept no records
Once a site was cleared of artefacts it was backfilled
Karl Weber (1750) Discovered Villa of Papyri in Herc→ library of 1800 carbonised papyrus scrolls Drew up plans, maps of buildings, recorded artefacts and paintings where he could→ believed important to excavate systematically
Francesco La Vega (1764) Unearthed Odeon (small theatre) in Pompeii and temple of Isis with frescoes Uncovered building entirely- complete search for artefacts, documenting notable interiors, kept diary
Carl Bonucci (1838)
Herculaneum found forum baths, House of the faun, House of tragic poet,whole city blocks, Stabiae baths in Pompeii
Director of site→ corrupt, no concern for preservation of finds. Theft common and administrative irregularities in museum and excavation.
Horace Walpole/ Thomas Gray (1740)
Englishmen and poet visited Herculaneum (Grand tour)
19th Century and early 20th Century (improvements in archaeology, systematic, recording info, photography used) political changes
Giuseppe Fiorelli (1860-1875)
1863→ Developed method of plaster casting, preserved positions of dead.
Divided P into insulae, gave each house identifying number. Cleared away ash, earth from previous excavations.
Kept written record, prepared plans for sites
Giulio De Petra (1893-1901)
Excavated House of the Vetti brothers, recreated inner gardens of some houses, restored roofs
August Mau (1893-1901) Categorised Pompeii wall paintings into 4 main styles. Provided date range for each style→ helped date buildings
Vittorio Spinazzola (1911-1924) Excavated along Via dell Abbondanza (main street) Reconstructed upper stories and balconies (from remains of buildings, paintings) Photography → recorded stages of excavation (helped conservators working to repair 20th century damage to buildings from theft, vandalism, exposure to elements, war)
Amedeo Maiuri (1924-1961)
Uncovered cemetary, fully excavated Villa of Mysteries,
Used mechanical equipment to dig away debris from previous excavations
Put roofs over buildings
Excavations done too quickly, some unrecorded.
Late 20th Century (multidisciplinary approaches taken)
Estelle Lazar (1986)
Discovered Pompeii plaster casts still had bones inside. Brought CT scans, x-rays on site and MRI scans in Australia.
Can deduce sex, age, appearance, height, general health, status, occupations, cause of death. → Should we disturb human remains
Dr Sara Bisel (1932-1996)
Recreated lives from skeletons→ gave them a story before she finished research (inaccurate)
Discovered occupations, appearances of skeletons→ facial reconstruction, scans, sorted through skeletons
National Geographic paid her to go to Pompeii→ put rings on skeletons it didn’t belong to, moved skeletons (accused of tampering)
Andrew Wallace Hadrill (1983-2016)
Director of Herculaneum Conservation project
Talks about need for conservation and preservation, tourism and modern archaeology ruined sites
Penelope Allison (2005) Found atrium wasn’t for business→ area contained cupboards for domestic items (pots, spinning equipment Suggested women, slaves wander in and out all the time→ spaces would be lively and open Reexamined archaeological records → men typically took paintings, valuables and left the rest
Wilhelmena Jashmenski (1955-2007)
Discovered gardens integral part of everyday life→ most dwellings had space to grow figs, olives, cherries, other fruits and vegetables.
Larger gardens→ commercial uses (vineyards, nurseries)
Gardens sites of religious activities→ animal sacrifices, meditation
OVERVIEW OF APPROACHES IN EACH CENTURY
Before 19th Century
Treasure hunting
Pompeii first discovered in 1590’s and excavations began in 1689
Herculaneum first discovered in 1709
No systematic archaeology, Sporadic excavation
Looting, destruction, archaeologists hindering others
Late 19th Century- Early 20th Century
Adopt systematic approach to archaeology
E.g. Giuseppe Fiorelli (grid system of Pompeii, plaster casts)
Early photography/ written recording
Multidisciplinary approach, E.g. August Mau (artwork- 4 styles)
Greater focus on conservation. E.g roofs- however done poorly
Mechanical equipment to dig away debris
Late 20th Century
Multidisciplinary approach
Improvements in technology allow for more to be discovered
Women involved → Creates gender equality in info about site
Moratorium adopted → Need to preserve not excavate
Different materials used to preserve. E.g. Resin
Changing interpretations: Impact of new research and technologies
X- rays DNA CT Scans Camera/Photography 3D Computer Imagery NASA image tech- papyrus scrolls Thermoluminescence
Issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilities; impact of tourism
Italian Contributions
The Italian Central Institute for Cataloguing and documentation
Documentation 18000 photographs → painted walls, mosaic floors
Soprintendenza archeologica Di Pompei
Professor Pietro Giovanni Guzzo
Restorations, maintenance of endangered structures→ made priority
Guzzo keeps friendly eye on Pompeii tourists
Via Del Abbondanza Project (2004)
To record and create photomosaics of the 900m Via Dell’abbondanza.
Digital photography to survey and record standing structures
The Neapolis Project: (1980-1982)
Interlink electronic database→ archival documents, archaeological remains
Italian research institute
The Philodemus Project:
Aim→ reconstruct new texts Philodemus’ works on poetics, rhetoric
1752→ workers discovered papyrus scrolls
Multispectral imaging developed→ read scrolls
Great Pompeii Project
Effort to preserve Pompeii and make it accessible to public
2013- European Union pledged £105 million to restore city.
Herculaneum Centre
To promote study, preservation and enhancement of Herculaneum
Construction, preservation and restoration
Issues of conservation and reconstruction: Italian and international contributions and responsibilities; impact of tourism
International Contributions
The Houses in Pompeii Project (1977)
Investigate, salvage architectural features, mosaics, wall paintings that have been excavated, but not recorded
The Pompeii Forum project (1988)
Produce more accurate plans/evaluations of surviving remains
Initiated→ architectural plans of forum were inaccurate
The Insula of Menander Project (1978)
Readress deficiencies in early records of insula (hasty, little documentation)
Aim→ draw general conclusions about insula social structure over time and final from in 79 AD
Found→ frequent building changes and boundaries of properties changed over time
The British School at Rome (BSR) Pompeii Project
Led by Andrew Wallace Hadrill
Purpose→ Take 3000m² insula and see what can be discovered
Found→ city not frozen in time. House of Impluvium remodeled in 1st century→ new atrium floors raised.
Villa of Oplontis Project
Aim→ Study 2 villas (Villa of Poppaea and Villa of Crassius) to see how villas changed over time
Found→ wall paintings severely deteriorated over time
Restoration work being undertaken at time of eruption
Herculaneum Conservation Project
David Packard and Andrew Wallace Hadrill
2000→ Packard Humanities Institute pledged to give $10 million a year for 10 years
Purpose→ Excavate, preserve Herc and stop decay, deal with groundwater problem
Study waste→ learn about what people ate, work they did .
Elements of destruction
“Pompeii is dying a second death” ANDREW WALLACE HADRILL
NATURAL
Heavy rains→ walls, shops collapse
Interiors never meant to be exposed to weather, are: sun, wind, rain
Light→ fades frescoes, deteriorates carbonised objects quickly
Strong sun→ bleaches, fades paintings
Oil drops, grit, bacteria, mould spores damage
Acid rain→ discolouration, corrosion of surfaces
Weeds/parasitic plants→ grow over ruins
Fungi/algae→ grow where poor drainage→ clog gutters, sewers
Roots→ break foundations, loosen mosaic floors
Ivy→ penetrates plaster, destroys stonework
Pigeons→ acidic poo corrosive on floor, wall decorations, pick at carbonised wood
Feral dogs
Pompeii→ groundwater damages, not effective sewerage
Herc→ surface water drained off house→ deterioration of tepidarium roof (suburban baths)
HUMAN
Early excavations
Allied bombing (1943) walls, columns crash
Incorrect wood replacement→ rot, termites
Modern varnish→ wax can’t breathe
Perspex cases (protect graffiti) create humid dirt trap
Steel roof built House of Mosaic Atrium (Herc) collapsed and broke floor
(1975-2000) → 600 items stolen
Frescoes cut from walls→ robbers
(1997)Heads cut from plaster casts
Tourists walk streets, mosaics→ wears down
Humid breath, camera flashes→ deteriorate wall paintings
People brush up against walls, touch walls/columns→ body oils on ancient surfaces
Rubbish dumped
Graffiti left by tourists
Ethical issues: Study and display of human remains
“Human remains should be displayed in a manner consistent with professional standards.” INTERNATIONAL COUNCIL OF MUSEUMS
DISPLAY
Early excavations→ plaster casts considered appropriate for display
Skeletons assembled incorrectly→ alleged ‘last moments’
Herc skeletons mixed up and stored together, not systematically
Pompeii remains→ displayed in rusty, dusty cases, no labelling
Not climate controlled→ camera flashes
Bodies moved and placed together for effect→ false impression of real life situation
LIFE/HEALTH
International Council of Museums→ human remains should be presented with great tact and care for feelings of human dignity
Sewerage in Herc→ balanced diet, everyone ate the same, used fertile resources of region
SOURCES: Seafood mosaic, Bacchus frescoe, Garum tanks
STUDY
On site exhibition will be installed → Copies of skeletons and artefacts will be displayed
Herc- 80 of 300 skeletons found have been removed
Links what diseases were back then to what diseases are now
Sarah Bisel (1980’s) Studied bones and made conclusions about their lives → some conclusions highly speculative (especially identity and occupation of individuals)
Tourists aren’t given warning, may be sensitive to deaths
Artefacts→ sold on the market
Establishment of the principate
- Impact of death of Caesar,
- Early career of Octavian,
- Second Triumvirate
- Civil War
IMPACT OF DEATH OF CAESAR
Assassinated March 44 BC by Brutus and Cassius (supporters of republic) → granted amnesty
JC will→ adopted Oct as son and nominated as heir
O left Macedonia to Rome to claim inheritance and avenge murder
Death left power vacuum; briefly filled by MA (JC’s ‘deputy’)
Politics; Republicans (Cicero) vs JC men (MA)
“At the end of the will, too, he adopted Gaius Octavius into his family and gave him his name.”
SUETONIUS: THE TWELVE CAESARS
EARLY CAREER OF OCTAVIAN
Sought vengeance as JC son
MA had spent most of JC money; O had to honour will→ sold own property to pay what JC promised; staged games (gained property)
Even with growing support; didn’t underestimate MA and Cicero
44 BC, MA consul expired and Cicero attacked him politically
MA moved north to take province; attacked when governor refused to leave
Cicero shared command with O and sent army to assist governor
O was needed as had large forces; army defeated MA and absorbed armies into own
Cicero demanded O hand over legions; declares MA public enemy and Brutus and Cassius given control over East
Cicero underestimates Oct and O marches legions on Rome
Takes treasury to pay soldiers
Cancels outlaw of MA
B and C outlawed
Elected himself as consul for 43 BC
O meets with JC’s former leading commanders: MA and Lepidus
“Antonius had been irritated at Caesar’s favouritism towards a young relative” JONES
“At the age of 19, on my own initiative and at my own expense, I raised an army by means of which I liberated the Republic.” RES GESTAE
“Republic again was at mercy of men who commanded loyalty of the legions.” SCULLARD
SECOND TRIUMVIRATE
43 BC O sanctions alliance (no civil war)
Power came from 33 legions, offices and titles
Treated West Roman empire as personal property (divided into 3)
O→ Africa, Sicily, Sardinia
Lep→ Narbonese Gaul, Spain
MA→ Transalpine Gaul, Cisalpine Gaul
MA strongest position; O→ africa hard to reach as seas controlled by pirates Sextus Pompeius
Aim of 2nd Triumvirate→ reconstruct state; Reality→ used powers to rid opponents and avenge JC murder
Proscription: Opponents declared outlaws; anyone could kill for reward
Over 20,000 men marked for proscription (300 senators)
“Proscriptions…brought about a reorientation of loyalties in political bodies” ECK
CIVIL WAR
42 BC: MA and O confront Brutus and Cassius in Greece→ defeated near Philippi (now 60 legions)
After Phillippi→ MA controlled East; O controlled Italy and West
MA in east→ O uses relationship with Celo for propaganda war
40 BC MA returns: Treaty of Brundisium
Lepidus retains Africa, MA retains East
O gains Gaul
Triumvirs nominate consuls several years in advance (secures positions)
MA marry Octavia (O’s sister)
Treaty of Tarentum (37 BC)
O needed MA support to defeat Sextus Pompeius; MA needs troops for campaign
MA to provide 120 ships, O provide 20,000 legionaries
MA gave ships- O only sent 2,000
36 BC→ Triumvirs fleets attack SP (SP flees but executed on MA orders)
O had more soldiers than needed→ settled veterans outside of Italy
O announces end of civil wars: Lep eliminated from Triumvirate
Over next years: O strengthened Rome military, economically, socially
Secured North East frontier and cleared Adriatic sea of pirates
Secured peace in Italy→ settle veterans, provide stability, prosperity
People got cheap corn, clean water, new building programs
“With Lepidus’ resignation the triumvirate had effectively ceased to exist.” ECK
Consequences and significance of the Battle of Actium
MA and O vied for power→ After Philippi MA toured East and met Cleo
MA unsuccessful in defeating Parthians→ missed chance to outdo O
MA spends more time with Cleo→ O uses for propaganda
MA divorces O’s sister→ acknowledges Cleo’s son as son of Caesar→ implies O took power illegally
O launches attack on “unRoman” behaviour→ declares war against Cleo
End of 32→ MA bases himself in bay of Actium
Early 31→ O bases himself overlooking Actium
MA fails to lure O into battle→ gave up land when position worsened
Short supplied, troops deserted, disease spread
Agrippa had more ships; wanted them in water→ penned MA in
MA and Cleo fled to Egypt→ their fleets surrendered or destroyed
MA and Cleo commit suicide; Caesarean killed (seen as rival)
Not greatest battle but Egypt became part of empire
Major grain source; gave O access to wealth
Marked end of civil wars→ no rivals and people glad for peace; voted O honours and staged games in his honour
Great propaganda victory; O said dangers didn’t die→ he would constantly safeguard from dangers
Coins declares him champion of liberty of Roman people
“Actium could come as no surprise” AWH
Romans saw battle as; “A symbol of salvation, of the rescue of Rome from destruction” AWH
“Augustus gave the Roman world a new order.” AWH
“Century of civil wars was ended.” SCULLARD
Coin described O as ‘son of God’ printed with Liberator of people on it. ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE
“The myth tells us, the threat was not laid to rest with victory. It was permanent: Rome…were ever in danger, for ever in need of a saviour.” AWH
Development of the principate: settlements of 27 and 23 BC
After Actium; O’s power unquestioned→ was ambitious; wouldn’t walk away from power→ knew power of legions
Conservative man; bound by duty, respected tradition→ maintain facade of republican govt (but also grant him supreme power)
Principate; In theory→ sharing power between Princeps and Senate
Reality→ Principate grew at expense of senate (evolutionary)
T. Mommsen→ Govt was sharing of power between Emperor and Senate→ dyarchy
“The dyarchy is a transparent fiction” BURY
27BC
Egypt claimed as personal imperium; access to wealth, corn supplies
Title of Augustus (revered one)
Became Princeps→ wanted to convince people he was just first citizen
Proconsular imperium:
For ten years→ right to appoint legates, make war, conclude treaties
Commander in chief of legions→ control of military→ no rivals to power
Consular imperium
Authority over Rome and Italy→ used to claim power over provincial proconsuls
Could dictate policy to Senate and assembly in Rome
“I transferred the state from my own power to the control of the Roman senate and people.” RES GESTAE
23BC
Settlement came out of concerns for senate unrest and succession
Never took dictator powers; censorial powers granted to him
Maius Imperium Proconsulare
Aug’s proconsular imperium made superior to that of other proconsuls
Tribunicia potestas
For life→ wide ranging powers;
Power to legislate in assemblies, could summon Senate
Could veto laws, propose new laws
Protect individuals against the actions of magistrates
“After that time I excelled all in authority, but I possessed no more power than the others who were my colleagues in each magistry.” RES GESTAE
Succession; First wanted nephew Marcus, then Agrippa, then grandsons (adopted as own sons) → Tiberius; final choice
Choosing a successor; Had begun to resemble a monarchy
Titles, honours and images of the princeps
Never flaunted power; often turned down offices offered by Senate→ but held political, military and religious positions
Power was never in question→ emphasised titles and honours bestowed on him though
5 titles Augustus used;
Pontifex maximus, Consul, Imperator, Tribunicia potestas, Pater Patriae (Father of the country)
Knew importance of image→ majority of pop was illiterate, only small minority would ever see A→ presentation on statues,coins, monuments was important→ image provided focus for loyalty
“To break an oath by Augustus,to deface his image…was to show disrespect to his greatness.” AWH
COINS
Numismatics→ Shows how A wanted to appear to people
A obtained right to making coins out of precious metals
Coin had propaganda value→ image of A and messages connected with image
27 BC: Gold coin “AEGYPT CAPTA” with crocodile→ A presented as conqueror of Egypt (and evil queen)
After Actium→ O coins declared him champion of liberty of Roman people (LIBERTATIS PR VINDEX)
Coins depicting him,titles and accomplishments→ used daily, strong propaganda→ reinforces to people how great he was
STATUE OF PRIMA PORTA
Shows A as young, strong, victorious general addressing troops (power and authority)
Veiled references to A’s divinity→ barefoot (suggest hero or divine nature)
Small cupid (son of Venus) at right foot rides dolphin (Venus’s patron animal)–> Julian family claimed to be descended from goddess Venus
ARA PACIS
Ara Pacis (Altar of peace)
Commissioned by Senate in 13 BC→ designed to welcome A back from Spain
Meant to symbolise peace and prosperity achieved thanks to “Augustan peace”
A depicted as priest, women and children of household follow→ family is model of virtue, morality and fertility (image complements strong morals A took in religious and moral reforms)
Has relief scenes depicting Vestal Virgins, priests and sacrificial animals
The Augustan principate:
Augustus and the Senate: roles and responsibilities
Many old families eliminated in proscriptions
Aug made new supporters members of senatorial class;many new families
Used census to control size of senate→ reduced numbers
Republic not restored senate nt resumed traditional powers. Principate no dyarchy
Development of principate revolutionary and wanted real power; but shared burden of governing a vast empire with Senate
Aug showed Senate respect and gave members real responsibility;
Limited chances of ambitious members to oppose his rule
Use members as senatorial civil service for running vast empire
Enormous wealth; patronage; increased size of clientele
REFORMS:
New criteria for membership of senatorial class (had to possess $1 million sesterces and only men already of senatorial class could stand for political office)
Members fined for non attendance→ wanted to make it respectful and responsible again
ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES
Judicial; Dealt with treason, extortion, adultery
Administrative; Aqueducts, corn supply, roads, public buildings
Legislative; Advisory board and passed resolutions
Financial; Controlled public treasury. Minted coins.
Roles of magistrates and officials
MAGISTRATES:
Tribunes
Could no longer propose legislation or exercise the veto→ new positions were hard to fill
Quaestor
Rank was requirment for senate entry.
6 served in provinces and others helped Aug and consuls
Aediles
Lost traditional roles (corn supply management, public games, water supply, fire control)
City responsibilities were limited by appointment of prefect of city
“All they had left was the repair of the streets and a petty jurisdiction in commercial cases.” JONES
Praetors
Increased roles and numbers to 12
2 managed state treasury, 3 managed military treasury
Took over organisation of games and festivals from aediles
Consuls
Consuls: Most desired position of power and authority, each year there were 2 consuls
Represented peak of one’s public career
Gave enormous auctoritas
Opened possibility after the consulship of governorship of one of Rome’s provinces
Dealt with appeals from provinces
Heard requests from foreign envoys in minor matters
Ex-consuls managed administrative areas 9e.g. Supervision of water and grain supplies, public works and roads)
Proconsuls governed important provinces of Asia and Africa
OFFICIALS:
Military tribune
Period of army service
Procurator
Running business, tax collection, financial control of provinces
Governor
Running of province selected by princeps
Prefect Control of range of prefectures responsible for areas crucial to stability of Rome: Corn supply→ in charge of imports of grain from provinces Fire brigade→ in charge of those who fought constant fire outbreaks City→ in charge of maintaining public order, judging cases of lower class and freedmen citizens accused of crimes, 500-strong police force
Praetorian guard→ in charge of guardsmen activities
Imperial province of egypt→ In charge of affairs of egypt
Significance of equestrians and freedmen
EQUESTRIANS
Keen to use talented members of equestrian order as part of new civil service
“Thus Augustus succeeded in building up an efficient body of salaried professional administrators.” SCULLARD
Enabled Aug to revive traditions of republican Roman society; Old link with military→ originally had been horse-riding knights
Equestrians given new symbols of new status: Tunic with narrow purple stripe, right to sit in the first 14 rows at the theatre, right to wear gold rings, right to sit on jury courts, a horse at public expense
FREEDMEN
Freedmen were slaves whose masters had given them freedom→ Aug wanted to maintain value of Roman citizenship by restricting their numbers
Several laws introduced to regulate manumission (freeing of slaves)
Freedmen (often intelligent, educated men) played important role in Aug’s administration→ many carried out secretarial work (already used to it as slaves)
Some freedmen attended to his private affairs, finances etc→ called procurators
Gave some significant roles but barred them from holding public office or serving in the legions
Freedom didn’t mean automatic citizen rights:
Freed slaves took the citizenship of their former master but restrictions meant they weren’t seen as full citizens
Couldn’t hold magistry, serve in legions and couldn’t intermarry with senatorial class
Had to wear a special cap which marked them as freed slaves which in turn stigmatised them socially
Freedmen could marry free born women and their children were considered as freeborn
Could become priests and later played a role in cult on Rome
“He was not, however, hostile to wealthy and public-spirited freedmen gaining some social recognition.” JONES
Augustan reforms:
- Political,
- Social,
- Legal,
- Religious
- Administrative
POLITICAL
Remodelled political system; didn’t want to appear as turant→ idea of dyarchy
Reorganised senatorial order; revised senatorial rolls (expelled 150 senators)
Maintain facade of republic; create principate→ strengthen institutions of republic
Restored equestrian order to links with military origins→ efficient running of empire
“Aug went out of his way to revive the traditional senate.” AWH
SOCIAL
Concern for morality of people, declining birth rate, family values and morals (people reluctant to marry)
Moral legislation→ people who refused to marry were penalised, divorces not valid unless witnesses by 7 people
Married men (from senatorial rank) with 3+ children→ careers promoted
Penalised adultery
Forbade marriage between senatorial class and prostitutes/entertainers
Legislation hypocrisy→ Aug married 3 times but projected image reflecting morals (pater patriae)
“He attempted to regenerate society by social reform.” SCULLARD
LEGAL
Aim; remove judicial corruption, speed up justice process→ more systematic justice system measures
In Rome→ increased number of trail days (to speed up delivery of verdicts)
In Provinces→ New organised courts and new court for dealing with adultery cases
RELIGIOUS
Revived/joined sacred colleges and festivals; increased privileges of Vestal Virgins
Cults developed around Aug; but didn’t permit direct worship of himself
Old shrines restored, new temples built (divine claims of Julian clan highlighted)
Limitations placed on some foreign cults (E.g. Druids)
“I repaired 82 temples of the gods in the city,” RES GESTAE
SECULAR GAMES (17BC)
Link established between imperial house and Rome→ citizens could worship “Rome and Augustus”
Aug concerned about flaunting political powers
Local cults of “Genius of Augustus” developed→ often linked to cult of Lares
ADMINISTRATIVE
Financial situation poor (corrupt taxes) → key to finance was treasury
New reforms to aerarium treasury; settled provinces
Senate in charge of aqueducts, corn supply, roads, public buildings
Census (8BC) reorganised city into 14 regions→ administered by praetor or tribune
Employment → large-scale and frequent building projects kept the urban population working.
Police and Fire Brigade
Opposition to Augustus
Aug propaganda→ impression that there was little, if any opposition
Aug liked to give impression that he had not stifled free expression and happy to allow degree of dissent
Hide existence of opposition and threats to Aug below surface
Power in Rome had long been matter of destroying one’s opponents one way or another→ Aug no stranger to this through BOA and death of JC
Dealt with Brutus and Cassius, neutralised Lepidus and removed Sextus Pompeius
Through propaganda and Actium, he removed opposition from MA and CLEO
Opposition after Actium usually less clearly defined and didn’t include opponent lining up against his legions→ however opposition he faced remained real enough
THREATS FROM OUTSIDE THE FAMILY
Marcus Lepidus→ plotted to assassinate (would have re-sparked civil war)
Gallus→ advertised his own glory→ Aug had him banned from provinces, exiled
Crassus→ Very decorated but Aug found objections to his claims (only Princeps allowed power)
THREATS FROM WITHIN THE FAMILY
Julia used as dynastic pawn by her father; was intelligent and saw herself as important to Rome; knew her own power in the men that surrounded her; Married Marcellus, then Aug, then Tiberius
Augustus’ building programs:
- The Forum Augustum,
- The Ara Pacis,
- Pantheon,
- Campus Martius
THE FORUM AUGUSTUM
According to Suetonius; Built to accommodate recent increase in lawsuits
Political propaganda→ promoted Aug’s leadership and his divine ancestors
In the centre; statue of Aug in chariot (Father of the country)
Central element; Temple to Mars→ either side of statue to mars; Venus and ‘divine’ Julius
THE ARA PACIS
Altar of Peace→ to welcome back Aug from his campaign in Gaul
Relief scenes depict Vestal virgins, priests, sacrificial animals
Southside→ Aug and imperial family (victory and fruitful abundance linked)
Aug achieved peace
PANTHEON
Temple built by Agrippa to all the Gods→ commemorated victory in BOA
Inside were paintings of Gods
Pantheon in Greek means “honour all Gods”
CAMPUS MARTIUS
Building illustrated Aug’s willingness to allow family members to be advertised
Outside city boundary on eastern Tiber River plain
Changed to public buildings (baths, amphitheatres, temples)
Main structures of CM→ Ara Pacis, Pantheon, Public baths, Mausoleum)
Literature and propaganda: Virgil, Horace and Livy; role of Maecenas
Aug encouraged Roman writers: saw propaganda value in supportive writers
Little evidence he coerced great writers to do his bidding→ seems writers of Aug era needed little encouragement to praise new regime
Aug keen to avoid excessively flattering presentation of himself or his work
As Patrons, Aug and Maecenas actively encouraged writers of time, rewarding them with estates and riches→ in return they were expected to celebrate Aug heroic military deeds and publicise govt policies and promote values and aims of new Augustan Age.
VIRGIL:
Gained patronage of Maecenas (friend and trusted colleague of Aug)
Encologues of Rome: Expressed love and joy of Italian countryside
The Georgics: Practical advice on farming but again showed his affection for country
The Aeneid: Story of Trojan prince Aeneas who flees Troy, reaches Latium guided by Venus, marries latin princess and begins Julian family (of whom Aug is descendent)
Loved countryside and had reverence for Italy→ affection for land, efforts to revive it and promote simple rural lifestyle of past→ fitted well with Aug’s thinking “related well to the policy which Augustus pursued in encouraging the role of small farmers in Italian agriculture.” SHOTTER
HORACE:
Lost his farm during post- Philippi settlements but was later supported by patron Maecenas. Gave support to Octavian
The Satires and the Epistles: Attacked what he saw a faults in society
The Carmen Saeculare: Written to be sung during Secular Games of 17 BC
The Odes: Outlines virtues needed by Rome, and Augs key role in repairing failures of the past
In satires→ tried to highlight what was wrong in Roman society and in particular extravagance of upper class
Saw this as moving away from Rome’s traditional values which he sought to promote
Writing like this→ supporting Aug’s desire to revive traditional ways in Rome
In Odes sought to promote traditional values of Roman race
His support for simple, frugal life reinforced Aug’s thinking
LIVY
Ab Urbe Condita Libri→ Great history of Rome
His history comprised of 142 volumes- cover period from Rome’s mythical origin to conquest of Italy, 1st and 2nd Punic war and conquest of East to about 168 BC
Lived through the worst of times, having seen civil war, murder and destruction
Admired peace, stability and prosperity Aug had delivered
Saw history as means of teaching Romans moral lessons of how to live
If Rome could emulate virtues of duty and piety of past cultures, destructiveness of recent times could be avoided
Dramatic approach to history suited Aug’s preoccupation with traditional values and simple patriotism
MAECENAS
Born 70BC at Arretium. First appears in history in 40 BC where he helped arrange marriage of Octavian and Scribonia
In Octavian’s service and soon after, took part in organising Treaty of Brundisium and temporary settling of Oct differences with MA
By early 30 BC→ giving support to Virgil and Horace
O placed great confidence and trust in Mae
While O fighting Sextus Pompeius, Mae was back in Rome with total administrative control of city and Italy
When O fighting MA at Actium, Mae given administrative charge of Rome
Mae who crushed revolt of Lepidus
Mae later fell out of favour with Aug
Suetonius suggests was result of indiscretion in boasting to wife about his crushing of conspiracy of Caepio and Murena
His clients were fond of patron and he was able to influence their work
Imperial family and problems of succession
Never any real threat to Aug’s power but always was possibility of assassination. Also Aug known to suffer ill health (brought him close to death) → RAISED QUESTION OF SUCCESSION: Who would follow him?
Clear power came from household of Aug and as result it was unlikely any future princeps would come outside imperial family
Agrippa was loyal and effective but too low birth to be successor to Aug.
Agrippa and Julia→ Gaius and Lucius were born and Aug adopted them in 17 BC→ boys now acquired name of Julius Caesar and was keen to promote them.
Aug’s plans stalled when Agrippa died in 12 BC.
Aug now wanted to make use of Tiberius, Livia’s son from first marriage. Proven to be gifted soldier but Aug not overly fond of Tiberius and did not seem to value his great achievements
Now ordered Tiberius to divorce his wife Vipsania, and marry Julia
Tiberius genuinely in love with Vispania (daughter of Agrippa from first marriage) and obeyed Aug with great reluctance
Propaganda put in place to ready Rome for Gaius premature rise to consulship. Designated consul in 5BC and allowed to attend senate sessions.
Same ceremonies carried out for brother Lucius 3 years later. Tiberius unable to cope with promiscuous behaviour of Julia and annoyed by elevation of Gaius and Lucius left for self imposed exile
Aug banished daughter in 2 BC to island of Pandateria because of her scandalous life he had discovered
AD 2 Luscious died and AD 4 Gaius died→ now plans for succession thrown into chaos
Aug now had no choice but to turn to Claudian side of family, Tiberius.
Adopted Tiberius in AD 4 and have him Tribunician authority for ten years
Forced Tiberius to adopt popular Germanicus who was the son of Tiberius’ brother Drusus, and Germanicus married Aug’s granddaughter Agrippina.
Roles of imperial women: Livia, Julia
OCTAVIA: (69-11BC)
Augustus’ older sister
First husband died in 40 BC→ Augustus pressured her to marry MA in 39 BC→ Political alliance
Octavia independent→ refused to divorce Antony despite brother’s urgings until she had to (32 BC)
After MA died→ she looked after their children, his children with Cleopatra,and first wife
Octavia propaganda→ remained faithful,dutiful wife looking after kids, while MA with Cleopatra
Dutifulness weakened image of MA with Roman people
LIVIA: (39BC-AD14)
Aug’s daughter→ “He appears to have been too strict on his daughter Julia JONES
25 BC → intervened to end arrangement→ married 1st cousin Marcellus(died in 23 BC→ widow at 16)
21 BC→ married Augustus’ closest friend Agrippa (he was 42) → had 5 children
12BC Agrippa died → 11 BC Augustus forced Tiberius to marry her (not happy relationship)
Tiberius not happy he had to divorce woman he loved, and Augustus was grooming grandsons for succession in preference to Tiberius despite his service to Rome
Julia threw herself into life of promiscuous abandon→ took many lovers
Augustus angry at her indiscretions→ made mockery of moral legislation he promoted→exiled Her daughter Julia (2) suffered same fate for same reasons
Julia (1) died in AD 14 of starvation→ after Tiberius’ accession to power
“He let her waste away to death, exiled and disgraced, by slow starvation. TACITUS
JULIA: (58BC-AD42)
Augustus’ wife for 52 years (38 BC-AD 14)
Conformed to traditional role of wife and mother.
“Her greatest service to the Romans lay in her devotion to Octavian and in the civilising influence she brought to bear on him.” PAYNE
Married Tiberius in 43 BC and had child in 42 BC
38BC→ Tiberius persuaded to divorce her→ she married Octavian but already pregnant with 2nd child
Political move→ marrying into aristocratic family brought support for Augustus, but also in love with her
AD 14→ Augustus died, Tiberius emperor, Livia adopted into Augustus’ lineage as Julia Augusta
Augustus promoted her→ many public statues, public buildings dedicated to her, she was granted sacrosanctity and right to sit between vestal virgins during public performances
“All of her images and actions were closely connected with marriage, family and traditional Roman morality” MCMANUS
Role and contribution of Agrippa
Ag loyal, efficient supporter of Aug→ Leading advisor and at time “right hand man”
A major role in imperial administration
Married Aug’s daughter Julia: Couple had 5 children
Key military figure during 30s BC and credited with bringing about victory at the Battle of Actium
Constructed original Pantheon and other major sites in Campus Martius
Proved to be a skilled engineer and organiser of major public works in Rome
Was in Greece with Oct when JC assassinated→ advised Oct to set off for Rome
Mid 30s BC: Largely responsible for defeating pirate forces of Sextus Pompeius
33 BC: Appointed aedile→ in role carried out major public works in Rome,
31 BC: Skills needed when he organised Octs naval forces in victory over MA at Battle of Actium
19 BC→ Ag put down revolt by Cantabrians in Spain
17 BC→ Appointed for second time as governor of Syria→ protected rights of Jewish people
17 BC→ Aug adopted two sons of Agrippa and Julia→ Gaius and Lucius
12 BC→ Agrippa died at age 51→ Agrippa Had provided Aug with some of finest military victories and Agrippa was “probably the only man whom he could absolutely trust.” JONES
Death of Augustus
Aug died August AD 14 at Nola, South of Rome
Wasn’t quite 78 years old and “Some suspected his wife of foul play.” TACITUS
Tacitus’ reasons: Livia heard that Aug had had tearful reunion with grandson Agrippa Postumus. Was reported that Postumus’ return to Rome was imminent→ would have placed Tiberius’ accession to power after Aug in serious doubt.
Livia was careful to keep control of events→ sealed house and close by streets with her guards
“Then two pieces of news became known simultaneously: Augustus was dead and Tiberius was in control.” TACITUS
Aug cremated on funeral pyre in Campus Martius. Eulogies given by Tiberius
At funeral, as body was building, “an ex-parameter actually swore that he had seen Augustus’ spirit soaring up to Heaven through the flames.” SUETONIUS
Ashes were placed in mausoleum
In September, was voted divine honours and referred to as Divus Augustus → deified Augustus
In will left most of his estate to Tiberius and Livia
Requested in will that his Res Gestae be carved in bronze above the entrance to mausoleum
AFTER DEATH
Consuls swore oath of loyalty to Tiberius → Tib seemed reluctant to assume power
Ancient sources suggest he was hypocrite who feigned reluctance of gauge level of support and identify opponents. Maybe he wanted repeat of 27 BC and wished to be urged to take power as Aug had experienced
Perhaps he was genuinely reluctant after all he had given up his responsibilities once before and left
Tacitus reports first event of new reign was murder of Agrippa Postumus (may have been done on Aug’s orders to prevent possible future clash between Postumus and Germanicus) Tacitus places blame on new emperor
Beginning of new reign faced mutinies in Pannonia and Germany→ quickly put down by Drusus and Germanicus
Augustus legacy: Augustan Age had been marked by peace, security, stability and prosperity
“Ultimate legacy of Augustus was sweep of stability that the Roman world gained.” TACITUS
Augustus and the Empire
Augustus and the army
Army instrumental in acquiring vast empire→ Aug knew importance of keeping direct control over it and making it instrument of State (rather than a weapon used by individual generals)
Under Aug it became permanently organised professional standing army (replaced militia of republic)
Soldiers received their pay and rewards from Augustus himself→ reduced dependence on commanding generals and weakened patron/client relationship between generals and soldiers
REFORMS TO THE ARMY
PAY
Standardisation of pay and allowances
Pension payable; completion of services→ changed from owning land to lump sum equalling 13 years pay
LENGTH OF SERVICE
Length of service fixed at 16 years of legionnaires
6 AD→ Became 20 years for legionnaires and 16 for praetorians
RECRUITMENT AND CONDITIONS
Enlistment voluntary
Legions drawn from citizens (mainly veterans sons)
Forbidden to marry during term of service
LEGIONS
28 BC→ 60 legions reduced to 28
Permanent units
NAVY
2 Standing fleets (commanded by equestrian prefects)
Various river fleets stationed throughout empire
PRAETORIAN GUARD (LEGIONNAIRE ELITE)
Used as imperial bodyguards
Became privileged force→ 16 years service, pay of 2 denarii a day (very good pay)
“Theoretically it was the princeps’ bodyguard.” SALMON
Guard not expected to go into battle unless the princeps or imperial family member was actually fighting
“…was about 500,000. Of these I settled in colonies or sent back into their own towns more than 300,000, and to all I assigned lands or gave money as a reward for military service.” RES GESTAE
“Seduced the army with bonuses.” TACITUS
The roman public saw the existence of large armies loyal to generals as contributing to the civil wars
Reducing the number of legions was also financially beneficial and appeased the soldiers who had been conscripted to fight in the civil wars,
Reducing the legionnaire numbers enabled Augustus to disarm legionnaires of uncertain loyalties, as well as having greater control over the remaining troops,
Any opponents to Augustus’ power would think again before challenging the 30,000 men loyal to him and at his disposal.
“as a result of military victories won for them by troops loyal to them.” SHOTTER
Maintained loyalty by introducing reform (standardisation of pay, pension)
Not all of their time was spent on campaign→ training, maintenance of equipment and patrolling.
Extended empire by winning new territory and consolidating the territory already gained.
Provincial government: Imperial and senatorial
Provinces: Areas conquered and settled by Romans
PROVINCIAL:
Recently part of the empire and needed ruling with firm hand
Mainly frontier provinces with legions stationed in them
Governed by legates (praetors)
Relationship with Augustus: Governed for Aug who chose legates personally
13 by the end of Aug’s reign
SENATORIAL:
Mainly peaceful (Had been Romanised for some time)
Governed by proconsuls
Relationship with Augustus: Independent and retained military command
Standard number of 10 senatorial provinces towards end of Aug’s reign
Aug revised tax system to restrict opportunities for exploitation (previously corrupt)
Provincial councils were set up to conduct imperial cults of ROma and Augustus→ kept unofficial eye on provincial governors.
Aug made extensive tours of provinces to inspect their operation→ made attempts to improve running
WHAT PROVINCES GAINED FROM AUGUSTAN REFORMS
Consistent, restrained frontier policy, Controlled and fairer tax systems. Peace→ brought security, prosperity
“In Augustus, these subjects had in political patron whose duty it was to take care of the whole empire ” ECK
Augustus helped settle the provinces with the frontier policy and the expansion of the empire and appointed new governors in provinces
Property became more secure, commerce was revived and cities became more prosperous.
Created fire and detective departments to have jurisdiction over burglaries, fires and other crime,
Augustus placed the grain supply under a regular officer
Introduced curator viarum (superintendent of highways) to maintain and repair the roads system.
Established military patrols in dangerous districts
Reorganised the currency; introduced a new system where gold and silver coins were to be produced by the emperor and copper and bronze to be produced by the senate.
Revenues of senatorial provinces went into the aerarium (senate treasury) and the imperial went to the fiscul (emperor’s treasury)
Aug conducted census’ to determine the empire’s resources in order to share the tax more equitably.
Frontier policy
Extended Roman empire, brought great glory/wealth to Rome
Aim of frontier policy→ to win new territory for empire, consolidate territory already gained
Revisited his foreign policy after Varus disaster in AD 9 to maintenance of empire within existing borders
Frontier policies largely successful in Spain, Gaul, Britain, Danube area, Africa and the East→ Not Germany though
GERMANY
Frontier in north was River Rhine → unstable region and many times Germanic tribes from the east has carried out cross-border raids into Gaul
Area between rivers had not been pacified and troops still faced frequent attacks from German tribes
Augustus sent Varus to govern Germany→ German tribes not pacified and Varus didn’t understand complexity of situation.
Varus moved legions and were attacked in swampy Teutoburg forest→ terrain unsuited to legion’s tactics. Germans separated Roman forces into smaller groups and defeated them
No mention of Varian disaster in Res Gestae.
SPAIN (WEST)
Organised into 3 provinces
Veteran colonies were established, urbanisation encouraged and steady Romanisation resulted
AFRICA
Remained secure with desert as effective southern frontier
GAUL Southern part (Narbonensis) had been Roman for long time Rest of Gaul was divided into 3 provinces
BRITAIN
Left outside of empire
Augustus achieved his aims diplomatically,
EAST
Main problem had long been Parthia
Augustus sought to use diplomacy in the east
20 BC→ Aug and Tiberius installed pro- Roman Tigranes on the Armenian Throne
Positive relations with Parthia led to the return of the Carrhae standards
Syria was strengthened and client kingdoms supported in Asia Minor. The result→ relatively stable and peaceful eastern frontier.
AGRIPPINA:
HISTORICAL CONTEXT
Geography, topography and resources of Rome and the Roman Empire
GEOGRAPHY
Region of Latium (West coast of Italy) → central trading route to Etruria and Campania
Fertile plains, Mediterranean climate, crossed by rivers
Roman empire:
Vast area, centering Mediterranean. (North- Europe) (East- Greece, Asia) (South-Egypt, Africa) (West-Spain)
Major activity: Agricultural production (grapes,olive oil, cereal)
TOPOGRAPHY
Apennine mountain range→ wood, marble, stone, clay
River Tiber→ communication and trade mainly by river, access to sea and inland
Army legions patrol borders to defend against invasion,supervise traffic
RESOURCES
Italy (volcanic region) fertile soil, fine crops
Rome imports→ beef, grain, timber, oils, wine, glass, marble
Rome exports→ wine, olive oil, papyrus
Roman empire:
Trade important→ large amounts of food imported from all over empire
Grain most important→ Had to feed Rome’s urban masses (didn’t produce enough to be self-sufficient)
Slave trade (from conquered territories)
India→ Spices, jewels, perfumes
Egypt, Africa→ Grain, Ivory, Wild animals
Britain→ Lead, wool, gold, copper, tin
Agrippina:
Overview of Roman social and political structures; principate
Class conscious society; clear upper and lower class→ limited means to improve class
More lower than upper class→ keep content “bread and circuses”; food handouts, entertainment
Principate→ system in Rome; originally monarchy but revolt turned to republic
JC was dictator (made enemies; assassinated) Battle of Actium (31 BC) → contest for O or MA rule
Octavian victor→ undisputed control of Roman empire→ position to remodel political affairs
No real blueprint for govt→ principate evolved slowly
No way would he restore ‘real’ power to Senate, but didn’t want to alienate Senate like Caesar→ wanted to be seen sharing power, respecting traditional republican forms
“I transferred the state from my own power to the control of the Roman state and people.” RES GES
SETTLEMENT OF 27BC
Proconsular imperium for 10 years (control of most of legions) Senate to run other provinces
Nominated as consul every year to 23 BC
Gained Egypt after Actium→ controlled wealth, grain
SETTLEMENT OF 23BC
Tribunician authority” for life(pass laws in assemblies, summon senate, veto laws, propose new ones)
Given consular imperium for life
Took on ‘censorial powers’ (supervise membership of senate)
Most of Rome→ happy to have peace with him
Able to nominate successor→ adopted son Tiberius
Mid AD 40’s→ Principate became hereditary monarchy (family connections important)
ATY main goal→ have Nero become princeps
Role of imperial women in Roman society
Royal family→ women raised in palace
No political power (Patriarchal society) Imperial women had some influence; cultivate male allies, develop clientele.
Determining succession→ having son, opportunity for power and influence, occupation→ maneuvering son into power
Women were useful (establishing political alliances) marriage used for political/dynastic purposes
“Betrothals were broken or divorces dictated when alliances between men became animosities.” POMEROY
Females expected to be modest, marry young, large families, behave with dignity
Some owned businesses,able to inherit and hand on property without male permission
Imperial women meant to be educated. Daughters educated in traditional skills (weaving, spinning)
Role of women→ “To mind the house and watch over the children.” TACITUS
Objectives of Augustus in area of moral improvement:
Reverse upper classes voiding marriage, rejecting duty to have children
Reduce widespread adultery in noble classes
Reduce growing divorce rate
Limit lavish lifestyle of upper class
Passed law preventing men having affairs with respectable women (could have sex with slaves, prostitutes→ some senators wives registered as actresses, prostitutes etc)
Minimum age for marriage (Girls=12) (Boys=14)
BACKGROUND AND RISE TO PROMINENCE
Family background and status
Great granddaughter of Augustus (Julio) Great granddaughter of Livia- Aug 3rd wife (Claudian)
“Agrippina’s exceptionally illustrious birth is indisputable.” TACITUS, ANNALS
Father was beloved germanicus, brother would become Emperor Gaius (Caligula), Uncle (and later husband) would become Emperor Claudius,son would become Emperor Nero
“Her pedigree was impeccable.” S. PEROWNE
Well aware of value of her bloodlines→ later emphasises dynastic connections
“Agrippina…would make much of her Julian descent, a descent that came through the bloodline and was not conferred merely through adoption.” BARRETT
Inherited status from well-connected parents;
Germanicus successful political, military career (fought in Germany, consul in AD 12)
“True, Renaissance man.” SUETONIUS
ATE; active military role→ All 9 children born in military camps
Germanicus managed to suppress serious mutiny in Germany→ made popular with legions
Early life, ambitions and marriages
Born November 15AD (Modern day Cologne)
Early moths spent in Germany, came to live in Rome approx 16 AD. Germanicus viewed as hero
“The triumph of Germanicus…was a memory that his daughter would exploit to the full.” BARRETT
AD 17→ Germanicus sent by Tiberius to east (Ag remained in Rome) Fell ill and died in AD 19; convinced he had been poisoned→ stated Piso (new legate of Syria) and wife conspired to murder him
Rome; widespread grief. Tacitus didn’t attend ceremonies celebrating him→ fueled suspicion of murder, didn’t make him popular
Eventually Tiberius has Piso and Plancina brought to trial→ both accused of murder (took own life)
Progress towards Rome by ATE slow and deliberate→ procession reached Tarrancia, joined by Ag and Claudius; Barrett; suggests reunion would have been potent, vivid childhood memory for Ag
Following decade→ Destruction of family; Older sons (Nero, Drusus) prepared for high office→ Tiberius complained to Senate it was too quick.
ATE; arrogant, obsessed with power, convinced her lineage made her special→ in danger from Tiberius and Sejanus (right hand man and Praetorian guard prefect)
To protect her sons→ gathered group of powerful aristocratic friends around her. Claims she was forming party “Partes Agrippinae.” If so; “It was the 1st specific political movement formed by a woman.” BAUMANN
Sejanus had them imprisoned on false charges (AD 29) All died AD 33
“Mother and son were left to starve in their separate places of imprisonment…she must have been the single most important influence on her daughter and namesake.” M.T.GRIFFIN
MARRIAGE 1: Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus
After dad dead; required by law to come under tutelage of guardian (role; arrange suitable marriage)
Guardian was Emperor Tiberius→ 28 AD arranged marriage (Ag around 13)
Ahenobarbus was descendent of wealthy family and of MA (had married Octavia)
37 AD→ Gave birth to son Nero and became the Emperor’s sister (ascension of Gaius)
39 AD→ Ahenobarbus died
“It is interesting to note that they thought it best not to have children while Tiberius was still alive.” T. WEIDEMANN
MARRIAGE 2: Sallustius Passienus Crispus
Wealthy, consular rank (but not as well connected as Ahenobarbus)
Marriage saved her from intrigues of Messalina
47 AD→ Crispus died (left her very wealthy)
“Agrippina, remembering the weakness of her mother’s position after the death of Germanicus, set out to find a husband.” GRIFFIN
MARRIAGE 3: Claudius
According to sources (Ag very beautiful) Claudius a womaniser
Freemen competed to choose a wide for him, he needed companion
“Was in the habit of consulting him constantly…and in fact she was rather more familiar in her conduct towards him than became a niece.” CASSIUS DIO
Basis of her power and influence; patronage
Marriages (all well-connected) underlined significance of her family background, status and made her wealthy
Birth of child→ New status as a mother (Matronly virtue; important criteria of acceptance in society)
Even more significant→ Her child was possible heir to Julio- Claudian dynasty
Aware of importance of furthering prospects of her son→ vested political interest in dynasty beyond her own survival and personal advancement
Own family’s fortunes→ taught her that position and status wasn’t enough→ needed to surround herself with powerful, influential people to support her cause.
Learnt from ATE who had built strong network of friends/patrons to help support her and her children’s future
Ag used influence and her observance of human nature to cultivate,bend people to her will (husbands, senators,freedmen, Nero- for a while)
“She was no paragon of female virtue..she was prepared, if necessary, to wade through slaughter to a throne.” SALMON
Role during the reign of Gaius (Caligula), including exile
37 AD; Tiberius died→ Gaius (Caligula) now emperor
First acts: Bring 3 sisters into prominent position
Made vestal virgins
Included in annual vows for emperors safety and vows of allegiance
Included in preamble to proposals submitted to Senate
Issued on coin (never before sisters of emperor on coin)
Hints of incest (especially Drusilla) “Without a compatible wife, it might be expected that Caligula would have looked for affection from his three sisters.” BARRETT
39 AD; Ahenobarbus dead. Ag and Livillia convicted of committing adultery with Lepidus (Drusilla’s former husband). Forced to carry ashes and scatter→ Banished to Pontian Islands
41 AD; Gaius died and exile ended→ Uncle Claudius now emperor; sisters recalled to Rome
After exile→ married Crispus (saved from intrigues of Messalina)
Ascension of Claudius; turning point in Ag’s career; Sharpened political skills and focused on promoting own position and Nero’s succession
Mess wielded power→ used position to dispose of suspected rivals; threats to children
Downfall of Mess→ Public marriage to Gaius Silius. Motives? Maybe feared Ag’s power and popularity of Nero (got more applause at games than Britannicus)
Silius saw opportunity to make himself master of Rome (senate hostile to Claudius) Promised Mess her position would remain intact, Britannicus would be emperor.
Narcissus→ told Claudius of plot against him→ Praetorian guard killed her
“Had gone so far as to commit bigamy…so Claudius executed her.” SUETONIUS
Ag took advantage of downfall; married Claudius. Incestuous; Claudius granted special dispensation
Role during the reign of Claudius
49 AD; Married and Ag pursued objectives; (wanted Nero to succeed as emperor) (Achieve major share of political power)
“Agrippina used her influence over Claudius not only to consolidate Nero’s claims, but also to enhance her own position.” BAUMAN
PROMOTION OF NERO
Got Claudius’ daughter Octavia betrothal cancelled and Nero now engaged to her (AD 50) Nero adopted by Claudius→ Octavia ‘adopted out’ so they could marry
Nero given precedence over Britannicus in succession (Ag tried to isolate Britannicus; removed tutors and replaced with her own loyal men)
53 AD; Oct and Nero marry→ now lined up to take over from Claudius
Prepared policies in advance; ensured had friends in right places (powerful position for herself)
Remove rivals and recall supporters (Seneca brought from exile; became Nero’s tutor)
Lollia Paulina (one of Claudius’s choices for marriage) accused of astrology and forced to suicide
Removed prefects from Praetorian guard and replaced with own men (influence over guard)
GIVEN HONOURS
Title “Augusta” (first living consort of living emperor)
Colony named after her
Allowed to meet foreign dignitaries
Frequently appeared on coins
Sources suggest she murdered Claudius (Perhaps he had become aware of schemes and regretted making Nero heir; reconciled with Brittanius)
Role and changing relationship with Nero during his reign
54 AD; Nero became emperor
Early reign; Ag wield power and influence; given honours and allowed to travel in covered carpentum (Featured heavily on coins also)
Had actual power as well as symbolic; removed opponents and threats
54 AD; Ag attended senate and listened behind curtain
“At first Agrippina managed for him all the business of the empire…” CASSIUS DIO
Began to lose power; Armenian delegation (entered room and intended ascending stairs to sit next to Nero→ would have seen them as equals) Nero descended to greet her (avoid scandal)
Ag feared losing; threatened to make Britannicus legitimate heir to throne (Nero poisoned him)
Developed passion for Acte (freedwoman) → more Ag complained; more Nero’s passion grew
Ag changed tactic→ offered him her bed; couldn’t consummate; would have given her too much power (Took mistress in same image as mother instead)
“Agrippina’s loss of influence is illustrated by the disappearance of her portrait from the coinage.” WEIDEMANN
Relationships with other members of the imperial court: Seneca, Burrus and imperial freedmen
Patronage helped achieve goals; patron assisted clients by advancing careers; in return, clients supported and furthered cause of their patron
Reign of Claudius and Nero→ had her clients placed in key positions; expected to remember these favours and do Ag’s bidding
SENECA:
Charged with adultery and exiled on island (After Mess died→ Ag brought him back)
50 AD→ Became praetor and Nero’s tutor (He and family prospered)
Drew apart when Nero became emperor (S tried to limit her influence in state)
Political operator and knew she was about to fall and would take him with her (concerned about Armenian scandal)
BURRUS:
Convinced Claudius Praetorian Guard would be more efficient if run by 1 prefect instead of 2 (Mess’ prefects replaced by Burrus)
Could stabilise political situation and add strength to her position (eased transition from Claudius to Nero)
Ensured loyal guard would rally behind new emperor; sought to control young Nero’s behaviour→ dissuade from immediately killing Ag
Refused to order his men to murder Ag (argued oath was sworn to protect all members of imperial family
“Owed positions to her.” SCULLARD
PALLAS:
Suggested candidate as wife; pushed for adoption of Nero and played key role in emperor’s finances
Strong ally; lessened influence of Narcissus who opposed her influence
Championed Ag; would bring to the marriage grandchild of Germanicus, fertile, link 2 branches of imperial house
Nero removed Pallas; an attempt to lessen the power of his mother
NARCISSUS:
Loyal to Claudius (not ally of Ag) Championed Aelia Paetina (had been married before, had a daughter together, would be good stepmom to Octavia and Britannicus)
Frequently at odds with Ag (E.g. Draining of Fucine Lake→ Ag openly blamed him for tunnel collapse)
Went away; came back and position in peril (Claudius dead, senate not keen on him, no friend to Ag or Nero)
Impact of her personality on career: public image
Ancient sources; Sketched unpleasant character
Undoubtedly more complex, rounded personality than Tacitus and Suetonius suggest
Studies of iconographic representations→ suggest she may have projected very different public image than provided by Tacitus
“Depictions of Agrippina on coinage and statuary…appears as matron and priestess…a central figure in the continuity of the dynasty.” GRUEN
Attempts on her life
Poppaea Sabina (liaised with Nero in 58) PS taunted him; would never divorce Octavia and marry her as long as Ag was alive
Mocked him and Ag’s control over him; said he wasn’t emperor but pupil of Ag; won him over
Ag didn’t want her fate to be decided by other woman→ Dressed seductively and lured Nero
Tried poisoning her 3 times and crush her with falling ceiling panes
Plan for collapsible ship to be built; Roof collapsed and Ag’s friend pretended to be her; was killed
Ag not recognised and swam away
“This was the end which Agrippina had anticipated for years. When she asked astrologers…they answered he would become emperor but kill his mother. Her reply was “Let him kill me- provided he becomes emperor.” TACITUS
Death: Motives, manner and impact of death
When safe on land; sent message about ‘lucky escape’ Nero feared she would arm her slaves (army)
Ag framed for death of messenger (said she had sent him to kill Nero on Agrippina’s orders)
Her death was now justified→ killed with sword (Final restraints on Nero were removed)
“The matricide remains…a desperate act by Nero to liberate himself from the psychological domination of his mother.” WARMINGTON
“Her death caused changes in her son’s behaviour.” GRANT
Evaluation
Impact and influence on her time
Huge impact on early years of empire; influence brought chaos and uncertainty to an end
Impact in determining succession; worked towards making Nero emperor (promoted his image, education,titles and pushed Britannicus into the background)
Impact in reign of Gaius; limited significance (Saved Seneca’s life, conspiracy led to exile)
Impact on Nero’s reign less than on Claudius; Seneca limited her role, Nero grew tired of her)
SPECIFIC EXAMPLES OF IMPACT
Decide leadership of Praetorian guard (Burrus appointment)
Remove political and personal rivals
Powers of patronage; (promote interests of clients and family)
Ultimately came as close as a woman could to actually exercising power
Julio- Claudian ancestry through Aug/Germanicus→ evident in relationship with emperors and key nobles and freedmen of their reigns
“Agrippina became the first woman during her lifetime to share with a reigning princeps the face of an official coin minted in Rome.” BARRETT
Assessment of her life and career
Difficult to assess; legend presents her sleeping with brother, overthrowing him, marrying uncle, murdering him, sleeping with son (ONLY SURE THAT SHE MARRIED UNCLE)
Sources were hostile→ tendency to focus on bad part of her life, rather than stabilising administration
Suetonius loves gossip; Included everything (even if couldn’t verify it)
Tacitus didn;t love empire; republican sentiments painted empire in negative light
Gender; Women weren’t supposed to be involved in politics; wasn’t their natural role
Assessment is unjust as to hostile, vicious etc→ certainly determines, ruthless, ambitious (but any political figure who makes it to the top of political ladder must be determined, manipulative)
No denying her achievements. Thanks to her influence→ govt of Claudius was transformed for better
Legacy
Argued that there wasn’t long lasting impact of her life
When she was alive; survived only by establishing powerful alliances, isolating opponents
IMPACT ON GOVERNANCE OF ROME
Severed loyalty of Praetorian guard (Burrus appointed prefect)
Realised angry, sullen senate could cause problems for husband→ encouraged cooperation and senate worked constructively with empire
Period of her brief ascending (Nero’s reign) was best part of Nero’s rule→ descended into depravity, violence, civil war following her murder in 59 AD
Little physical memory beyond coins, occasional cameo, statues, reliefs
No political groupings were formed to resurrect reputation after death (Any supporters were removed or took up new allegiances)
Writers succeeded in blackening her name
Evidence of her remembrance; Reign of Trajan (Bust of Ag found in forum→many were to honour family members)
Legacy; She formally defined the place of women in Roman political system
Failed to break down patriarchal attitudes of her peers for whom politics was no place for a woman
Another 150 years before a woman would attempt to play role in political life (acted as a warning)
Price a woman might have to pay for wielding power and influence→ end up beaten and murdered by assassins on orders of one’s son.
Ancient and modern images and interpretations of Agrippina the Younger
Tacitus, Suetonius, Cassius Dio→ dominate representations (Hostile)
Archaeological; cameos, sculpted relief of Sebasteion at Aphrodisias (Ag & Claudius) (Ag & Nero)
Coins from reign of Claudius and most significant from Nero
Statues, coins, reliefs→ different to immoral, outrageous woman presented by ancient writers (appears demure,matronly,pious)
Sebasteion relief at Aphrodisias (turkey)Ag holding Claudius’ hand (possible affection/agreement) Ag placing crown on Nero’s head (suggests increase in her power and influence)
Ancient writers present her as immoral, brutal, unconcerned about abusing the legal system to remove rivals, manipulative, unprincipled
Modern writers (until 20th century) tend to echo this view; writing remained patriarchal
1970’s→ Feminist history, gender studies (no longer men fearful of threat to ‘natural’ patriarchy; women able to view her as intelligent, determined who should be admired for achieving as much as she did in male-dominated world.)
TACITUS
Hostile towards ambitious imperial family members
Assessment of women involved in politics; reflects time and class attitudes
Portrayal of Ag→ torn between hostility and reluctant admiration
Condemned what she represented, but admired her energy and competence
Thinks in female stereotypes; prevents from making deeper analysis
SUETONIUS
Biographer rather than historian. Access to imperial archives
Inconsistent→ Handed down any story that come across in tradition, no matter how implausible
Stresses that it was Nero who initiated incest with Agrippina
CASSIUS DIO
Hostile, but recognised much was from gossip and speculation
Only surviving literary source that mentions Ag between 55-59
Said she became 2nd Messalina (shows how little he understood true nature)
Said she was training Nero for the throne and had more power than Claudius
T.MOMMSEN
Historians until recently followed ancient traditions of hostility towards Ag
Morals of Ag were little better than Messalina and she was madly ambitious
From outset, Ag was not satisfied with her status in the household→ She wanted to share in government
SALMON
“Agrippina destroyed rivals, enemies and those whose wealth she desired.”
“Undoubtedly,she was hoping one day to rule the world through her son.”
“She was prepared if necessary to wade through slaughter to a throne.”
GUGLIRLMO FERRERO
Radical assessment of the rule of Julio-Claudian women in the wielding of supreme political power
Stripped away anti-imperial and anti-female bias of Tacitus; revealed noble woman who didn’t resemble distorted images in mainstream interpretations
Ag provided for states future by promoting Nero
“Restoration of the republic” was her masterpiece; marks height of power
Ag put the public interest before her own family
A. BARRETT
Ag represents essential stage in the evolution of the imperial system
Her achievement was to ‘be an empress in an empire that allowed only emperors.”
“It is when Agrippina is judged by her achievements, rather than by her personality or character, that she demands admiration.”
“The Roman imperial system was unfair to women like Agrippina.”
THE GEOGRAPHICAL ENVIRONMENT
Geographical setting, natural features and resources of New Kingdom Egypt and its neighbours
GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING
Most prominent feature→ Nile River (flows north from central Africa to Egypt and then out to Med sea)
Mediterranean formed Egypt’s northern border while Red Sea was Eastern boundary
West dessert formed natural barrier between Egypt and Libya
During floods, navigation became difficult due to rapids formed as river forced its way through region
3 seasons:
Inundation: Akhet, Emergence: Peret, Ploughing: Shemw
Duality: East and West banks, order in religion, E.g. Osiris vs Seth. Black land vs Red land
NATURAL FEATURES
“Egypt is the gift of the Nile.” HERODOTUS (Greek historian)
There would be no Egyptian civilization without river
2 distinct geographical areas:
Lower Egypt: North. Rich lands of Nile Delta and Old Kingdom capital of Memphis
Upper Egypt: South of memphis to southern border at Aswan. Included New kingdom capital thebes, and the Valley of the Kings
Nile was important for irrigation for crop growing, transport, water for drinking/bathing, animal husbandry, mud for brickmaking, papyrus, fishing and fowling
Fertile, surrounded by lifeless desert and chaotic foreign lands
Cataracts (natural barriers of Nile) Mediterranean Sea to the North
RESOURCES
From Egypt
Wide variety of natural resources; minerals, ores, stone, rock and food
Within borders→ rich deposits of gold (mined from earliest times)
Nile→ Agriculture, water source, transport, fishing and fowling
Food→ Ducks, Cattle, hares, Fish, Oils, vegetables grown, Honey, grains produced, Figs, fruits, grapes (wine)
Papyrus
From neighbours
Oases to the west→ provided valuable raw materials
Timber from cedar forests of Byblos (modern Lebanon)
Crete and Aegean provided pottery, jewellery and ignite of copper
Blue semi precious lapis lazuli stone from Afghanistan
Luxury goods such as panther skin, ostrich feathers came from region of Nubia (south of Egypt) used for priests
Spices, Ivory, Ebony
Relief from Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple, showing trade expedition to Punt. “Behold the load is very heavy…ebony and pure Ivory, apes, skin of southern Panther…the like was never brought before any King
Hymn to Hapi
Hapi reveals how Egyptians relied on the Nile
Hapi is the God of the Nile and sacrifices were made to him as Egyptians knew what would happen when he didn’t come
“People’s lives are changed by your coming”
“None can live without you.
Significant sites: Thebes, Valley of the Kings, Malkata
THEBES
East bank of the Nile where the sun rose each day was for the living (City was gods first creation)
Here was Royal palaces, temples of Gods and villages of people
West Bank, place of setting sun was for the dead
For most of NK, Thebes (Waset) was the most important centre
Duality of east and west banks→ Ma’at
East Bank
East bank of the Nile at Thebes→ located 2 great temples of Amun (Luxor and Karnak)
West Bank
Site of the pharaohs mortuary temples (especially built to maintain cult of dead pharaoh in his afterlife)
Pharaohs tombs were close in VOK
Short distance was Valley of Queens
Short distance was village of Dier el- Medina (housed the workers who constructed nearby pharaohs tombs)
VALLEY OF THE KINGS
NK Royal necropolis (cemetery) Contained rock- cut tombs of 62 pharaohs of NK
Thutmose I is thought to have been the first pharaoh to construct a tomb for himself in VOTK
Consists of two main sections: Eastern and Western valley
Valley offered seclusion and degree of protection for funerary monuments of a dynasty devoted to Amun “the hidden one”
Symbolic appeal→ view across Nile from Thebes resembled hieroglyph Akhet meaning “horizon” (place of rising sun→ gave location a symbolic association with rebirth and renewal.)
Each morning the sun would rise over eastern cliffs (12 hours of wake and order to the waking world, in evening, Ra set towards cliffs in west)
MALKATA
Amenhotep III built a huge palace complex on West Bank of Thebes (for setting of King’s Sed-renewal festival)
Excavation revealed artefacts, rooms with decorated plaster floors, walls and ceilings
Many feature naturalistic scenes of plants and animals, decorative spirals
West of Thebes usually reserved for cemeteries
Roles and images of the pharaoh: concept of maat
ROLES AND IMAGES OF PHAROAH
Exercised absolute power over his subjects→ had both earthly and divine roles as provider and protector of his people
People revered him as King and representative of gods
Power came responsibility→ at all times; main role was to uphold maat
Chief priest of all religious cults→ made daily offerings to the gods in temples; rituals often delegated to high priests of gods and their attendants
Pharaoh was chief judge and supreme commander of the army
Authority of King shown by regalia or kingly dress
Could be recognised by headdress, symbols of authority he carried and other accoutrements (e.g. False beard, kilt, tail and weapons)
Number of representations of King became standard features of pharaonic iconography (way King was depicted in reliefs and statues)
Expansion of empire in period saw development of Royal military images known as “warrior Pharaoh” iconography
Typically show Pharoah hitting enemy with mace or attacking enemies in war chariots
Military image of Pharaoh was Sphinx (seated pose or trampling enemies)
MAAT
According to creation myth→ world was in state of continual tension between order and chaos.
Primary duty of pharaoh was to maintain maat (harmony of universe and protect Egypt from forces of chaos)
Concept of maat embodied truth and justice
Abstract concept but personified as a goddess (usually depicted with ostrich feather on head)
Goddess controlled cycle of seasons and stars and relationships between Egyptian people and their gods
Roles of the vizier and members of the religious, administrative and military elites
ROLE OF VIZIER
Supervised work of other officials; Acted as king’s deputy
Responsible for main departments of govt
All major officials reported to him (including managers of treasury, granary, state building projects, town mayors and provincial governors)
NK→ administration became complex and office of vizier was split into two
One controlled north
One controlled south (based in Thebes)
“He dispatches every official of the Royal domain…”Tomb of REKHMIRE (vizier of Thutmose III)
Duties included;
Maintaining law and order in civil cases, Supervising king’s residence, Appointing and supervising officials , Supervising temple workshops and estates, Controlling public works
RELIGIOUS ELITES
Many cults in Egypt for worship of different gods
Administered by overseer of prophets of all gods of Upper and Lower Egypt (position held by Chief Priest of Amun)
Temples were endowed by pharoahs with huge estates→ provided produce necessary for daily offerings to the gods and maintenance of staff (officials, priests, scribes, craftsmen)
ADMINISTRATIVE ELITES
Responsible for internal govt of Egypt (most important were viziers)
Overseer of Treasury→ responsible for taxation (paid in grain and cattle) stored in temple and state granaries for distribution in wages to officials and workers
Overseer of granaries→ supervised network of scribes who recorded intake, storage and distribution of grains and supplies
Other officials controlled judiciary (police)
Local district→ provincial governors, town mayors and lesser officials
MILITARY ELITES
Strict hierarchy headed by Pharaoh (advised by council made up of vizier and most senior military officers)
Main divisions were infantry and chariotry
Vital role of military in creation and maintenance of empire→ meant army leaders enjoyed high status and influence
Nature and role of the army
NATURE AND ROLE
Professional standing force
Served as a focus for growing nationalism (stimulated by victories in the war of liberation over the Hyksos)
Provided important career path for men of ambition and talent
Chariotry division led by the Pharaoh
As it conquered neighbouring regions→ it incorporated foreign troops as auxiliaries
Conquered regions were controlled by garrison troops stationed st strategically located fort’s; soldiers policed the local area collecting tribute and quelling any local rebellion
Naval contingents were used for transport and communications
Infantrymen were equipped with long and short range weapons. Most important was bow. Others included spears, lances, boomerangs
Used daggers, sticks and clubs for hand to hand combat.
Protective shields were made of wood covered with animal hide
Adaption of Hyksos military technology changed the nature of NK army.
E.g. Horse drawn chariot → new chariot corps gave army mobility in battle and in pursuit of enemies (chariot became distinctive symbol of warrior Pharaoh)
Body armour used and adopted curved swords
Infantry were recruited from conscripts and volunteers (spear men, bow men, axe bearers, club slingers, scouts, spies and messengers)
Chariotry were elite unit in army→ distinguished men of high birth, used as strike weapons ahead of infantry
Captives were bound, led by ropes around neck in front of pharaoh’s chariot or put to work in mines
During peacetime→ garrisons of soldiers left in towns and fortresses, colonists settled on farms, mercenaries in resident cities, soldiers acted as bodyguards for the King at festival time, employed in public works, accompanied on trade and mining expeditions
MILITARY CAMPAIGNS
Travel and transportation
Desert marches by infantry, Navy was used to ferry army up and down Nile and to transport men and supplies to Asiatic capital cities (E.g. Byblos for campaigns against Syria)
Decision making and tactics
Pharoah ultimate authority, Councils of war with generals, Frontal attack on enemy position, led by chariotry Use of siege tactics to force surrender
Spoils of war
Slaves, Grain and livestock, Weapons and armour, Luxury items
Treatment of the defeated
Slaughter→ hands or genitals cut off to keep tally of the dead, Taking of hostages or captives (e.g. Children of enemy leaders) Execution of rebel leaders, Mutilation and display of bodies as deterrents
Roles and status of women: Royal and non Royal
ROYAL
Woman’s role and status in NK depended on husband or close male relative
Some royal women had own tomb, but rare , most buried in tombs of male relatives
Dynastic roles was to maintain royal line of succession by providing heirs (kings had many wives)
Most important royal women were queens, wives or mothers of pharaoh
Religious role of queen as consort was to provide female principle that complemented the pharaohs relationship to male gods. E.g She was the hathor to his Horus
Duties of god’s wife of Amun→ included important rituals enacted within temple of karnak→ major precinct of Amun
Political role unclear→ traditionally wife of dead king acted as regent for new pharaoh when he was too young to rule in his own right
Still other wives were foreign princesses whose diplomatic marriage to the king cemented relations between Egypt and neighbouring powers
Egyptian princesses were never sent away as bridges for foreign rulers→ demonstrates Egypt’s superiority over its neighbours
NON-ROYAL
2 main groups→ upper class and commoners
Women of upper class→ did not generally take part in same sort of activities as male relative, but were expected to remain at home and manage domestic affairs
Reliefs from tombs→ Indicate activities included weaving, caring for animals, producing crafts items as well as baking, brewing, cooking
Servants available to women of this class
Bringing up children occupied a large amount of their time→ But had advantages of wet nurses and nannies
Little info on lives of women of lower class; Usually referred to as ‘mistress of the house” → meant housewife
Women of this class→ probably occupied with household tasks of raising children, preparing foods, weaving cloth and other physical tasks
Worked in the fields, on regular basis or at least in times of harvest or when extra labour was required
Some Egyptian women of New Kingdom were slaves, known only to use through documents that record the sale
Scribes, artisans and agricultural workers
SCRIBES
Workers made up majority of population; Highest ranking of class were scribes→(literate members of society)
Included secretaries and clerks→ jobs were to keep careful records(especially matters relating to tax and state administration)
Skills of scribes were essential to running of government
Wrote letters, despatches, surveyed and, measured eight of crops to assess taxes. Census, items of tribute and trade, measured and recorded gold supplies in temples, recorded allocation if equipment and rations to royal tomb workers
ARTISANS
Other skilled workers included artists and craftsmen (sculptors, carpenters, jewellers)
Influx of wealth into Egypt→ increasing need for trained artists and craftsmen with skills and imagination to meet demands of:
Kings massive building projects, dedicated luxury gods to gods, filled tombs with finest funerary objects
Upper classes→ tastes became more sophisticated, lifestyle more opulent, tombs more elaborate
Army equipment. E.g. chariots, weapons
Hierarchy of craftsmen; royal sculptors and goldsmiths at the top
Most favoured in group were those that worked in the Kings tombs
AGRICULTURAL WORKERS
Majority of pop were unskilled workers, occupied mainly in agriculture (mainstay of Egyptian economy)
Peasant was backbone to society; all other classes depended on farmers for their survival
Sometimes conscripted to work on buildings and major water and land management schemes
Other unskilled workers; animal herders and fishermen and servants of nobility→ prepared food and wine for banquets, performed as musicians, singers and dancers and waited on their superiors
Temple servants carried out similar duties in the cults of the various gods
THE ECONOMY
Importance of the Nile: agriculture, animal husbandry, transport
IMPORTANCE OF THE NILE
Crucial to development of economy→ agriculture depended on inundation
Food production most important economic activity
Fertile land bordering Nile also supported large herds and flocks of livestock
Nile was highway and main means of transport of goods between many of the towns and villages of Egypt
AGRICULTURE
Economy depended on agriculture from earliest times
After each inundation→ govt officials re-established old boundaries that had been swept away, created new dykes, measured land areas for next planting season
Silt deposited each year by Nile was fertile, but sometimes irrigation by hand was necessary
Shaduf helped this→ mechanism to transfer water from Nile to fields under cultivation (Beam, balanced on supporting tower, with bucket in one end and stone as counterweight.) Bucket was dipped in the river then swung around and emptied into irrigation ditch
E.g. Tomb scene painting showing a shaduf in the New Kingdom
Akhet (Inundation) → July-Oct: Workers relieved from field work, most work done on temples
Peret (Springtime) → Nov-Feb: Ploughing and sowing crops, emergence of plants in main growing season,
Shemu (harvest) → March- June: Harvesting, threshing and winnowing of grain, grain storage
ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Livestock supplied meat, milk, hides and dung for cooking fuel. Oxen used for ploughing
Domesticated animals raised for food (pigs, sheep, goats)
Archaeological source of the inspection of cattle from the tomb of Nebamun, an 18th dynasty nobleman→ depicts cattle and how they were used in agriculture
TRANSPORT
Nile was main highway of Ancient Egypt (goods transported between major ports)
Heavy building stone (limestone, granite) transported on barges
E.g. Hatshepsut’s mortuary temple at Dier el Bahri; scene of the transportation of a pair of obelisks from Aswan to Thebes
Facilitated domestic trade between villages and towns
Economic exchange: barter and taxation
BARTER
Main form of economic exchange involved sophisticated barter system (used scale of value)
Main standard used for small transactions was copper, and basic unit was one deben
Value of any exchangeable commodity was expressed as a number of copper deben
E.g. One coffin valued at 25 deben → buyer would have tendered goods (goats, pigs) to this value
Economy depended on the distribution of raw materials and produce, including imported goods and locally produced commodities (barley, cattle, wine, linen)
Goods were redirected by the Royal storehouses as wages to officials, priests, artisans
TAXATION
Agricultural and other produce was carefully measured, countered and recorded by scribes
Govt granaries where grain was stored were essential to economy→ in absence of money currency, agricultural yield formed basis of tax system
Tax collection was most important task carried out by central administration
Conducted by treasury officials accompanied by scribes, and policemen carrying sticks
Tax calculated on heat of annual inundation
Addition to agricultural produce→ officials assessed trees, ponds, canals, herds, flocks and the yield from hunting and fishing
Egyptians careful accountants and tax evaders were severely punished
Tomb scenes depict assessment of produce and collection of taxes by scribes
Sometimes farmers beaten for tax evasion
“He is beaten savagely.” LANSING PAPYRUS
Any produce left after tax, farmers could barter in markets
Once the taxes were paid,mt here was very little left for farmers basic needs
Cheating on taxes was overcome by measuring height of crops and assessing amount of tax payable before crop was harvested.
Impact of empire: booty, tribute and trade
BOOTY
Military Scribes kept inventory of plundered goods taken back to Egypt after successful campaigns
Pharaohs proudly included lists of booty in victory stelae and temple pylons to advertise their success
Annals of Thutmose III records some booty taken after surrender of Megiddo:
“living prisoners: 340. Hands:83…One fine coat of mail belonging to the enemy.”
TRIBUTE
All goods coming to Egypt from foreign countries referred to as inw→ means “things brought”
Egyptians didn’t always distinguish between goods that came as a result of conquest, diplomacy or trade
Conquered towns became vassals of Egypt, and were required to pay an annual tribute or tax
Tribute through conquest→ Annual taxes levied in conquered towns and cities. E.g.timber, copper, lead from vessel towns in Syria
Tribute through diplomacy→ Diplomatic gifts exchanged with neighbouring powers. E.g. Gifts accompanying diplomatic marriages between Amenhotep III and princesses from Babylon and Naharin
Tribute through trade→ Products acquired through commercial exchange. E.g. Ivory from Syria, Lapis Lazuli from Afghanistan
One of most important results of creation of empire→ development of diplomatic relationships with neighbours
Rulers of Mitanni and Babylonians recognised Egypt’s influence in region and exchanged gifts of gold and other valuables with the pharaohs→ Egyptians portrayed such gifts as tribute
Peaceful trading missions often followed conquest and diplomacy
Many scenes in tombs of important officials show columns of men bearing foods to be presented to the pharaoh or his officials
E.g. In tomb of Rekhmire (vizier of Thutmose III) shows Minoans dressed in typical kilts carrying distinctive Minoan pottery vessels→ Crete never conquered so scene probably depicts peaceful trading mission
TRADE
Foreign trade conducted through barter system (usually royal missions on behalf of king or great cult temples)
Merchants and soldiers followed in footsteps of soldiers and new and exotic goods made their way into Egypt from places a far away as Afghanistan and babylon
Expedition to punt during reign of Hatshepsut→ ships returned from Punt with exotic goods such as incense trees, gold, ebony, elephant tusks and panther skins
Crafts and industry: wood, stone and metal
Goldsmiths→ hammered gold and gold foil into shape to make ritual vessels, shrines, and jewellery
Jewellers→ brazing to fit lapis lazuli, carnelian, turquoise, faience beads into gold, drilling into stone beads with bow drills to make collars, earrings and bracelets
Portrait sculptors→ producing statues of kings and gods with bronze chisels and diorite polishers
Metal workers→ smelting ingots of copper and tin (bronze) in large furnaces and pouring material into moulds to make temple doors, mirrors and weapons
Carpenters→ working in cedar, ebony, meru woods with axes, pull saws, adzes, chisels and bow drills to produce coffin sleds, shrines, furniture and chariots
Leather makers→ soaking hides in jars of oils, stretching them over a board, hammering and scraping until the oil is absorbed into the skin and cutting out shapes for sandals, satchels, helmets and quivers
Craftsmen of Dier el Medina→ given better rations, supervised by vizier, equipment from govt warehouses, water, laundry etc→ worked 8 days in 4 hour shifts, returned to family for 2 days→ careful records
Tombs paintings show range of industry→ but not all stages of manufacturing are shown, tomb artist was selective in his choice of activities and techniques
Technology: tools, building materials, techniques and construction
Beginning of 18th dynasty→ known for exquisite craftsmanship and decoration
Process for construction of tombs–. When King commissioned building, everyone rejoiced→ would be employed, better access to rations and supplies
Once site chosen, plans drawn up and quarrying began
Stonemasons use copper and bronze spikes→ pounded with wooden mallet→ split the rock→ limestone debris removed from site in baskets→ Deposited on the Valley floor
Plasterers followed→ smoothing down walls
Draftsmen outline layout of text and pictures in red ink→ mistakes or improvements marked in black by master draftsmen
Sculptors and painters followed→ some stone did not favour reliefs so scenes were painted in plaster surface→ where carving was possible, sculptors used bronze chisels→ reliefs were then painted
Tools: Chisels, copper/bronze spikes, shovels, brushes, ochras for colour, mallet,
RELIGION, DEATH AND BURIAL
Gods, goddesses, cults and priesthoods including Amun -Re, Osiris
Gods/godesses:
Centered around family (temples called homes or mansions)
Revered animal headed deities (numerical groupings. E.g.Dyads; 2→ Endless duality)
Strong links between God and Pharaoh’s
Cults:
Each major god; associated with cult temple (centre of worship)
Some became wealthy; cultivation of land/trade, mining → managed by priesthoods
Cult of Amun-Re
Most important god (chief god of state religion)
Temple at Karnak→ higher status than other cults; priesthood became powerful
Cult of Osiris
Originally fertility god→ after murder and dismemberment; became god of underworld (chief God of dead)
Features of cult were important NK burial practices→ mummification, funeral, Opening of Mouth Ceremony
Priesthoods:
Called ‘servant of the gods’
High Priest; full time worked closely with pharoah, often held role of vizier
Second Prophet; in charge of agricultural estates, livestock
Appearance; ‘ritually pure’ → heads/bodies shaved, circumcised
Temples; not for public practice; priests prayed to Gods, not deliver sermons to civilians
Each temple/priesthood followed own customs and practices;no central system of religious belief
Priesthood of Amen→ Most important, controlled rich establishments, Pharaoh’s right hand
Festivals: Opet, Beautiful Feast of the Valley, Heb-Sed Festival
Opet
Occurred in Inundation (flooding) → lasted 27 days
Included 2 mile journey from Karnak to Luxor Temple→ particular focus on god Amun
Ensure prosperity and sustainability for the next year
Significance/purpose
Celebrate relationship between state god Amun and their pharaoh→ Pharaoh was regenerated (powers of Amun believed to pass onto his living son) → maintained kingship
Hatshepsut enthusiastic; had resting stations built between places→ Relief in Hatshepsut’s Red Chapel; depicting a wayside shrine she built
Scenes of festival featured on colonnade of Luxor Temple
Beautiful Feast of the Valley
Amun statue placed on ceremonial boat and carried to Nile; statues accompanied by pharaoh’s→ journey across Nile to necropolis (cemetery) Food offered for a feast
Shrines then taken to mortuary temples of deceased pharaohs where procession ended;rituals for dead ancestors performed
Public could visit and walk through VOK
Heb-Sed
Known as renewal of Kings→ oldest feast festival ; celebrated by the king after 30 years ruling and repeated every 3 years after→ represented ritual reenactment of unification of Egypt
Celebrate continuing rule of pharaoh
Amenhotep III had three festivals → His tomb scene shows the first festival;
Myths and legends: Creation myth, Osiris myth
CREATION MYTHS
No one central creation myth; all different variations, depending on location→ 4 main myths (Heliopolis. Hermopolis, Memphis, Thebes)
All have some elements of primeval waters/ mound or lotus flower
Originally transmitted through oral tradition→ But in New Kingdom more were recorded down
Sig for religion→ Gods and goddesses associated with creation; kept world in order.
Temples considered point at which creator God came into existence, and were considered mirrors of universe. E.g. Temple of Luxor by Amenhotep III to Amun→ symbols of lotus on columns
Sig for death→ Symbolic of rebirth; observed in new days, seasons etc
Conveyed messages about life and power of the spoken word (essence of being)
Death observed in myths, as before origin, there was just lifeless waters and creation allowed life to form.
Tomb paintings depict creation myths and gods and goddesses associated→ symbolising cyclical nature of life and beginning of new life in afterlife
Sig for burial→ Little known about specific funerary practices incorporating creating myths
Symbols associated with origin of universe frequently in tomb scenes
Originally people buried with representations of primeval mounds on top of graves→ practice changed by New Kingdom
A. Spencer (historian) → suggests representation of primeval mound wa sin sarcophagus standing on block of stone in tomb, → important in resurrecting body in afterlife, due to appearance of life from original mound described in creation myths
Bowl from 18th dynasty; Sig→ bowl’s blue colour represents water (source of creation) and lotus symbolism
OSIRIS MYTH
Seth jealous of Osiris attention; invited him to banquet and locked him in coffin;threw into Nile
Isis searched for body; performed ritual spells for protection
Re sent Anubis (god of embalming) and Thoth to help prepare and bandage his body→ form first mummy
Horus avenge father Osiris; battle Seth→ H declared rightful king
Significance:
Hope for afterlife→ offerings to Gods, judgment
Duality in Osiris’s order vs Seth’s chaos
Associations to the gods and goddesses and role in their rituals, beliefs (mummification and afterlife)
Reflects proper burial, spells for safe travelling of the Akh of Osiris (Isis) à Book of the dead
Mummification was refashioned to a corpse of an (OK) à mummiform similar shaped to that of the image of Osiris, à capabilities of “Osiris rebirth”
Akh of pharaoh = associated with other gods and would become one with Osiris
Wrapping the body à Anubis
Prayer, mourning, blessings, spells
Funerary customs: rituals and texts: afterlife concepts, mummification
RITUALS AND TEXTS
Herodotus is only written record; 3 types of mummification (based on status and wealth)
Book of the Dead
Made available to public at start of NK→ used for protection and safe passage to underworld
Collection of spells, hymns, passwords, images
Found on tomb walls, papyrus scrolls→ Depicted “Opening of the Mouth” and “Weighing of Heart” (previously only on papyrus) Tomb of Sennefer
Am Duat
Reserved for pharaohs royals (sometimes favoured nobles)
Focus on journey of Ra through 12 regions of underworld (corresponds to each hour of night)
Ra is reborn in morning as the rising son; hope for rebirth in deceased
Commonly Found in VOK in royal tombs→ royals had guide for realm of dead
E.g. In Amenhotep III burial chamber→ decorated with complete Am Duat
AFTERLIFE CONCEPTS:
Afterlife known as “Field of Offerings”
Belief that humans possessed a ka (life force that left the body at death) and ba (spiritual characteristics unique to the person)
Tools and food placed in tomb→ to use in the afterlife
Afterlife was a reflection of world they had left; with blue skies, boats for travel and gods/goddesses
Amulets given→ powers of protection, healing and good fortune
MUMMIFICATION
Ritual→ dead body embalmed and wrapped; ensured safe journey to afterlife (took 70 days)
Egyptians believed spirit only could live forever if body was preserved forever
Royal and wealthy classes→ only could afford mummification
Religion important; ceremony and prayer involved in ensuring body prepared for afterlife
Priests played roles in every step (wrapping mummy, placing internal organs in canopic jars, blessing entrance of tomb at funeral)
Embalming body
Body cleansed with Nile water→ ‘rebirth”
Essential that heart left inside the body (for entrance ot afterlife)
“They…draw out the brain through the nostrils.” HERODOTUS
Wrapping and burial
Procedure took 15 days; ensured body preserved for journey into afterlife
Heart scarab (important amulet over heart) → aided weighing of the heart ceremony
In NK→ most mummies contained in a sarcophagi
Temples: architecture and function: Karnak, Luxor, Dier el-Bahri
KARNAK
Approx 200 hectares in Thebes→ Most important religious centres in 18th Dynasty
Contained 3 major sacred precincts to Amun-Re→ smaller temples dedicated to Ptah, Opet and son of Amun-Re
Shrines, obelisks, chapels, statues, altars and stelae
Heart of the temple→ sanctuary (contained golden statue of daily offerings to Amun)
Hatshepsut describes temple of Karnak as: “The holy hill of the beginning”
Large sacred lake behind sanctuary
Major rituals of Amun’s cult conducted→ focus of daily offerings to Amun
LUXOR
Along Nile→ Mainly work of Amenhotep III; “Three quarters constructed by a single king.” HAYES
Opet shrine→ Maintained relationship of king with Amun
Aligned with Karnak temple→ for grand Opet procession
Building unfinished at end of Amenhotep’s reign→ built on by later pharaohs
Decorated with stone→ scenes and hieroglyphics on the walls and columns
In ancient times→ would have been surrounded by mud brick houses, shops and workshops
DIER EL-BAHRI
Temple built for Queen Hatshepsut,built against cliffs (limestone)
Special group of mortuary priests offered prayers, food incense on behalf of dead King and Queen
Funerary rites performed
Central part of temple→ avenue lined with trees and statues of queen→ Source: Kneeling,standing Hatshepsut statue
Shrine to Anubis→ God of underworld
Reliefs in temple; different to standard sacrificial scenes→ Expedition to punt, myth of the divine birth of Hatshepsut
Tombs: architecture and decoration: Thebes
Royal tombs plans complex; wall decorations→ texts painted on walls
NK pharaohs built tombs in hills of Luxor → feared for safety; thought protect from tomb robbers (VOK is safer and secret)
ROYAL
Rock cut hollowed out of limestone cliffs
Series of passageways and staircases leading to burial chamber, pillared halls.
Well shaft→ carry away flood waters and deter robbers
Burial chamber containing mummy of King in sarcophagus
Decorative features such as funerary texts painted on walls→ depictions of King in the company of gods also popular
E.g. HATSHEPSUT TOMB→ Entrance type was a staircase; fit for a king
Way the tomb was built suggests 2 burials; 5 corridors
Decoration→ soft shale walls meant it was unsuitable for decoration but mortuary texts written on wall
NON-ROYAL
Also rock cut but were smaller and different structural features
Typical tomb was T shaped structure(entrance courtyard leading into vestibule)–> short corridor connected to chapel
Shaft descended from chapel to burial chamber
Wall paintings depicted daily life occupations (agriculture scenes and craftsmen)
CULTURAL LIFE
Art: sculpture, jewellery and wall paintings
NK; rapid development in art; from contact with foreign lands (trade→ new ideas and material)
By time of Amenhotep III→ Egypt experiencing ‘golden age’
SCULPTURE:
Big statues were beautiful in this age
E.g. 20 m high sandstone statues of Amenhotep III known that flanked entrance to his mortuary temple
Sculpture was functional rather than decorative→ statues mainly placed in temples where their purpose was to receive offerings, and in tombs where they provided a dwelling place for the ka of the deceased
New types of statuary introduced in period was stelophorous and naophorous
Stolephorus→ image usually a male is combined with stela which is inscribed with a hymn to the sun god→ such statutes often placed over entrance of Theban nobles tombs
Naophorous→ image always male but often in form of a block statue is combined with shrine
To create 3D statue→ artists started with block of stone on which guidelines were drawn on each side– sculptors chiseled along guidelines until figure began to emerge→ rarely was figure freed completely from its stone block (egyptians didn’t carve out space between arms and torso, or between the legs)
Lower part of seated figures usually remained attached to the seat→ less likely to break
E.g. Ceramic fish from reign of Amenhotep III; yellow and white combed decoration to show fish scales.
JEWELLERY
Earliest significant evidence of Jewellery in NK comes from tomb of Queen Amenhotep→ tomb equipment included items such as ceremonial inlaid axe, golden daggers and flies of valour (important military decoration)
Pharaonic necklaces often contained important religious symbolism depicted in semi-preciou stones
More ornate bracelets worn by royalty were gold and precious stones otherwise made from beads and string; several worn at a time from wrist to elbow
Earrings were worn by both sexes after time of Hyksos period
Rings could be used to seal royal documents and popular amuletic motifs were scarabs and animals
“Gold was the favoured metal for jewellery” FREED, EGYPT’S GOLDEN AGE
WALL PAINTINGS
NK wall paintings found in royal and non royal tombs; designed to serve the tomb owner in the afterlife
Theban tombs of noblemen contain rich variety of scenes of daily life→ include colourful depictions of life on the Nile and in others officials can be seen receiving or inspecting foreign tribute brought into Egypt from neighbouring states
Funerary ritual scenes include funeral procession and the Opening of the Mouth ceremony
Most popular themes in Theban tombs shows deceased hunting- either fowling and fishing in the papyrus marshes or chasing game in the desert E.g. Scene from the 18th dynasty tomb of Menna depicting the popular themes of fishing and fowling in the marshes
Balance and symmetry:clear outlines and simplified shapes, scenes with figures arranged in horizontal rows
Proportion: Horizontal and vertical guidelines in surface of wall
Perspectives: Shoulders are seen from the front, and torso and hips are presented in three quarter view showing head, arms and legs in profile, almond shaped eye is drawn as looking directly at viewer. Flat features pools or water) painted from above so birds or fish within can be clearly seen
Scale→ size is clear indication of status, tomb however is usually the largest figure to emphasis his status, wives, family members, servants, natural and architectural detail are usually shown in smaller scale.
Writing and literature: love poetry, Papyrus Lansing: Be a scribe, Wisdom Literature: The instruction of Ani
LOVE POETRY:
Genre only developed in NK→ Egypt exposed to new people, exotic ideas from abroad
Some titles are called songs; suggests they were intended to have been recited→ likely thy would have been performed at banquets of nobility
Each poem contains stanzas alternating between male and female speaker
Themes; Longing for loved one, catalogue of lover’s physical charms
“My heart flutters hastily when I think of my love for you.” BE STILL MY HEART
PAPYRUS LANSING: Be a scribe
Only small elite could read/write→ all officials began career with scribal education (essential to administration)
Scribal education→ copying out written exercises, learning long passages
Example of scribal text where a teacher offers advice to young scribe
“Put the writings in your heart, and you will be protected from all kinds of toil. You will become a worthy official.”
WISDOM LITERATURE: The instruction of Ani
Instruction literature→ taught moral values and how to live happy, prosperous life
Variety of teachings→ humility, patience, trust in gods rather than material wealth
Instruction of Ani was believed to have been written in 18th Dynasty→ Ani was a scribe in the palace of Queen Ahmose- Nefertari and gives advice in standard form of a father to his son
“Take a wife while you are young; that she make a song for you.”
EVERYDAY LIFE
Daily life and leisure activities
DAILY LIFE:
Highly stratified society→ social position important
Few exceptions but it determined a person’s occupation and all other aspects of daily life
Members of pharaoh’s court enjoyed life of relative luxury without needing to work for living
Scenes on tombs of wealthy elite show spared no expense for quipping tombs for afterlife, tombs adorned with personal belongings, clothes, furniture etc
Everyday living conditions evidence for working class very lacking→ see them depicted at work in tombs of nobles they worked for→ but tombs designed to show wealth and status of tombs owner so evidence of occupations and work is shown, but material conditions of lives and attitudes can only be guessed at
LEISURE ACTIVITIES
Board games, big game hunting, fishing and fowling, gymnastics and athletics, archery, boxing and wrestling, stick fighting, singing, dancing and feasting
Hunting→ sport of kings and courtiers
NK tombs depict bird hunts in marshes of delta and remaining marshlands of Upper Egypt
For ordinary citizen, leisure activities probably took place in evenings after work, on days off and on many public holidays of calendar
Some leisure time was probably spent in inns, beer houses and brothels→ activities referred to in the INSTRUCTION OF ANI
Food and clothing
DIET:
Healthy diet (fertility of soil) Staples were bread, beer, fish
All social classes→ great beer drinkers; wine also popular but expensive. Excuses for not coming into work in Dier el Medina→ was brewing beer
Upper class; meats, veg, cakes, wine
Lower class; Bread, beer, fish, fruit
Fish→ used to pay wages, taxes (scenes in temples show abundance)
Fond of game (ducks, geese, pigeon) hunted down with nets and in marshes
Fruits and veg available (onions, melons, grapes, dates, garlic, leeks)
CLOTHING:
Indicator of rank→ wealthy afforded finest materials
Men and women→ white linen garments
18th dynasty progressed; more elaborate garments (previously kilts and close fitting dresses)
Men and women→ wore human hair wigs and simple sandals
Working men and women; wore simpler clothes→ men in fields bare chested
Surviving clothes in tomb; likely their very best to be buried in; not typical clothes
Housing and Furniture
HOUSING
Typical villa→ High walled garden with pool, lighting in small windows (minimised hot sun)
Officials in towns→ pillared rooms, servants quarters, grain silos on roof
Wealthy egyptians→ reception rooms, bathrooms (covered in stone slabs)
Typical workmans house→ 2-4 rooms, cellars for storage, additional living space on flat roof
FURNITURE
Chests stored personal effects (did not use wardrobes)
Quality→ dictated by social status→ only wealthy could afford imported timbers (local common)
E.g. From Tomb of Hatnofer and Ramose→ 18th Dynasty; chest and linens. Whitewashed wood,
OCCUPATIONS:
Agricultural and domestic
90% of pop
Farmers, Herdsmen, Fishermen, Gardeners, Water carriers, Servants Papyrus Lansing
Craftsmen
Stone vessel makers, Potters, Glass Workers, Carpenters and cabinet makers, Tanners and saddlers, Spinners and weavers, Jewellers, Artists and painters, Sculptors
Entertainment
Dancers, Singers, Musicians, Prostitution
Administrative and State
Viziers, Overseers, Scribes, Soldiers, Sailors, Priests
