Anatomy Unit 5: Chps. 26-28 Flashcards
1
Q
What are the digestive organs?
A
Makes up the…
- Digestive/alimentary canal: continuous tube of organs where food travels through and is eliminated as feces
- Accessory digestive organs: Assist digestion in the GI tract
2
Q
What is/makes up the digestive tract/alimentary canal?
A
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Esophagus
Gastrointestinal (GI) tract:
- Stomach
- Small intestine (SI)
- Large intestine (LI)
3
Q
What organs are part of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract?
A
Stomach
Small intestine (SI)
Large intestine (LI)
4
Q
What are the accessory digestive organs and their function?
A
Teeth
Tongue
Salivary glands
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
5
Q
What is the general functions of the digestive system?
A
Ingestion
Digestion:
- Mechanical digestion
(Segmentation)
- Chemical digestion
Propulsion:
- Peristalsis
Secretion
Absorption
Elimination/Defecation
6
Q
What is digestion and the different types of digestion?
A
Digestion: breakdown of food into smaller structures or molecules
1) Mechanical digestion: physical break down into smaller structures to increase surface area for enzymes to act on food
2) Chemical digestion: that breakdown macromolecules into monomers by digestive enzymes
7
Q
Name examples of mechanical digestion
A
- Chewing/mastication of the teeth
- Churning of the stomach
- Segmentation: mechanical digestion by mixing of food and digestive secretion along the intestines
8
Q
What are the different types of propulsion?
A
– Swallowing/deglutition: voluntary passing of food down the alimentary canal
– Peristalsis: muscular contraction that propels food down alimentary canal
9
Q
What are the layers of the digestive tract?
A
1) Mucosa
- Epithelium
- Lamina propria
- Muscularis mucosae
2) Submucosa
3)Muscularis externa
- Inner circular layer
- Outer longitudinal layer
4) Serosa
- Areolar tissue
- Mesothelium
5) Adventitia
10
Q
What is the mucosa?
A
inner layer of the digestive tract that faces the lumen (space where food/bolus/chyme/feces travels through)
11
Q
What are the three parts of the mucosa and their definitions?
A
– Epithelium
* Simple columnar epithelium
* Stratified squamous epithelium
– Lamina propria: loose connective tissue
– Muscularis mucosae: contracts to create grooves/ridges to increase surface area to contact with food to increase absorption
12
Q
What types of epithelium are in the mucosa of the digestive tract and where are they located in the alimentary canal and their function?
A
- Simple columnar epithelium: for most of the digestive tract
- Stratified squamous epithelium: from oral cavity to esophagus and at the end of the anal canal (protection from friction)
13
Q
What is the mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue?
A
mucosa contains a lot of lymphocytes and lymphatic nodules to help fight off pathogens
14
Q
What is the submucosa and what does it contain?
A
made of loose connective tissue with blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, nerve plexus, and possibly glands
- MALT is also found here
15
Q
What is the muscularis externa?
A
typically two smooth muscles layers
16
Q
What are the different layers of the muscularis externa?
A
- Inner circular layer: circular smooth muscles that prevents the backflow of food/etc
- Outer longitudinal layer: longitudinal smooth muscles that propels food/etc forwards
17
Q
What other structures does the inner circular layer form?
A
Sphincters: thickened circular layers that regulate the flow of food/etc within the digestive tract
18
Q
What is the serosa?
A
outermost layer of the digestive tract from the lower esophagus to the large intestine prior to the rectum and is the continuation of the visceral peritoneum.
19
Q
What parts are contained within the serosa? Where do you find serosa?
A
– Areolar connective tissue
– Simple squamous mesothelium: simple squamous epithelium
20
Q
What is adventitia and how is it different from serosa? Where do you find adventitia?
A
most outer layer of the pharynx, most of the esophagus, and rectum with their connective tissue blending into other connective tissues of other organs
21
Q
What are dense bodies?
A
Found on the sarcolemma of smooth muscles and are similar to Z discs of skeletal muscles
– Anchor intermediate filaments so when the smooth muscles contract, the muscle cell shortens
22
Q
What are the different types of smooth muscles? How are they different and where do you find them?
A
– Single unit/visceral: located in walls of hollow organs (ie: uterus, blood vessels, digestive viscera)
* Cells are connected by gap junctions so when it contracts, it contracts as a single unit
* Some are autorhythmic
– Multi-unit: located within the eye and arrector pili muscles
* Cells are in bundles or single smooth muscle cells without gap junctions with each cell with a neuron innervating it
23
Q
What is the source of calcium for smooth muscles?
A
sarcoplasmic reticulum and extracellularly
24
Q
What is the enteric nervous system?
A
regulates motility, secretion, and blood flow of the esophagus, stomach, and intestines; regulated by parasympathetic system
25
What structures are part of the enteric nervous system and where are they found?
– Submucosal/Meissner plexus: within the submucosa layer for the muscularis mucosae and glandular secretion
– Myenteric/Auerbach plexus: between the muscularis externa layers for peristalsis
26
What is the peritoneum?
serous membrane lining the viscera and abdominopelvic walls to reduce friction between viscera and walls
27
What are the different parts of the peritoneum?
– Parietal peritoneum: lines the abdominopelvic walls
➢ Peritoneal cavity: potential space between the parietal and visceral peritoneum where serous fluid prevents friction
– Visceral peritoneum: lines the viscera
28
What are retroperitoneal organs and name examples?
posterior organs behind the parietal peritoneum (ie: duodenum, pancreas, ascending/descending colon, rectum)
29
What is mesentery?
they are peritoneum that connect visceral peritoneum of organs and the parietal peritoneum
30
What are the different types of mesenteries and their location?
– Falciform ligament: connects liver to anterior abdominal wall and diaphragm
– Greater omentum: covers the abdominal organs from the greater curvature of the stomach
– Lesser omentum: connects the lesser curvature of stomach to the liver
– The mesentery/mesentery proper: suspends most of SI from the posterior abdominal wall
– Mesocolon: peritoneum that suspends parts of the large intestine to posterior abdominal wall
* Transverse mesocolon: suspends the transverse colon from the posterior wall
* Sigmoid mesocolon: suspends the sigmoid colon from the posterior wall
31
What is the oral cavity? What is the tissue surrounding the oral cavity?
“mouth” and entrance of GI tract lined with nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium and is surrounded by the labia (lips), buccae (cheeks), palate, and tongue
32
What are the functions of the oral cavity?
– Ingestion of food
– Taste and touch sensation
– Mastication (chewing): mechanical digestion
– Chemical digestion via salivary enzymes
– Deglutition (swallowing)
– Speech
– Respiration
33
Know the definition of ingestion, mastication, deglutition
- Ingestion: Putting solid/liquids into oral cavity
- Mastication: Chewing
- Deglutition: swallowing
34
What are the oral cavity organs and function
* Labia/Lips: thin keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
* Buccae/Cheeks: holds food within mouth when chewing
* Gingivae: “gums” covers the alveolar processes of mandible & maxillae and supports teeth
* Tongue: for gustation/taste, sound production, mastication, deglutition (swallowing), and defense (lingual tonsil)
* Palate: roof of the oral cavity and separates it with nasal cavity
– Hard palate: anterior part made of maxillary palatine processes and palatine bones
– Soft palate: skeletal muscle helps close off nasopharynx preventing it from entering nasal cavity
* Uvula: posterior portion of soft palate that also closes off nasopharynx and for producing certain sounds
➢ Fauces: posterior opening to the oropharynx
35
What are salivary glands?
Produces saliva
36
What is in saliva?
mostly water + lots of stuff (digestive enzymes, mucin, electrolytes, defensive secretions)
37
What cells make saliva and what does each individually make?
– Serous acini (darker staining): produces water, enzymes, electrolytes, and defensive secretions to moisten food for taste, chemical digestion, and defense
» Salivary amylase: digest carbohydrates
»Lingual lipase: digest triglycerides but activated at low pH
– Mucous acini (lighter staining): produces thick mucus made of mucin and water to lubricate food
38
What are the different types of salivary glands and how they differ?
– Parotid salivary glands: largest salivary gland but produces 25-30% of saliva
* Serous acini only
– Submandibular salivary glands: produces the most saliva (60-70%)
* Serous and Mucous acini
– Sublingual salivary glands: produces the least saliva (3-5%)
* Serous and Mucous acini but mostly mucous acini
39
What are dentition and its general function?
Teeth/Dentition: for mastication
40
What are the regions of a tooth?
* Crown: exposed part of tooth
* Neck: part between the crown and root
* Root: anchors tooth in alveolus
41
What are the tooth structures and definition?
- Enamel: outer layer of the crown made of calcium phosphate crystals (hardest substance in body)
* Cementum/cement: outer layer of the root
* Dentin: hard substance making bulk of tooth
* Pulp cavity: center of tooth with pulp where blood vessels and nerves are located
* Root canal: space that leads from the root to the pulp cavity
* Pulp: loose connective tissue, blood and lymphatic vessels, and nerves that fill the root canal and pulp cavity
* Periodontal ligaments: gomphosis joint that binds root to alveolus
42
What is the different between deciduous vs permanent teeth?
- Primary/deciduous teeth: “baby/milk teeth” consist of 20 teeth
- Secondary/permanent teeth: “adult teeth” consist of 32 teeth
43
What are the different teeth and their definition?
– Incisors (8): anterior teeth
* Central (4)
* Lateral (4)
– Canines/cuspids (4): posterior and lateral to incisors for puncturing food
– Premolars/bicuspids (8): have cusps to crush and grind food
* 1st (4)
* 2nd (4)
– Molars (12): most posterior teeth with cusps and 3 or 4 roots for grinding
* 1st (4)
* 2nd (4)
* 3rd : “wisdom teeth” (4)
44
What are the different regions of the pharynx that food passes through and their epithelium?
made of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
- Oropharynx: posterior to the oral cavity where food will enter the...
- Laryngopharynx: posterior to the larynx where food will enter the esophagus
45
What does the esophagus do and what tissue does it contain?
Esophagus: peristalsis carries bolus from pharynx to stomach and is made of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium to protect from abrasion and contains some skeletal muscle as well as smooth muscle
46
What is the smooth muscle at the end of the esophagus called and its function?
Lower/Inferior esophageal sphincter/esophagealgastric /cardiac sphincter: weak circular smooth muscle that preventing material from stomach from regurgitating
47
What are the layers of the esophagus?
– Mucosa: made of non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
– Submucosa: esophageal glands
– Muscularis externa
– Mostly adventitia within thoracic cavity; serosa in the abdominal cavity
48
What is different about esophagus’ muscularis externa?
– Muscularis externa:
* skeletal muscles (upper 1/3)
* Both skeletal and smooth muscles (middle 1/3)
* Smooth muscles (lower 1/3)
49
What is the general function of the stomach and examples of it?
* Function: location where bolus becomes chyme as it mixes with gastric secretion
– Mechanical digestion: churning and mixing by the stomach
– Chemical digestion: gastric enzymes and hydrochloric acid (HCl)
– Storage of food as it is digesting
– Limited absorption (aspirin, lipid soluble drugs)
50
What is chyme?
Gastric juices and food (bolus)
51
What are the structures/curvatures of the stomach?
– Greater curvature: inferior, convex portion of the stomach that the greater omentum attaches to
– Lesser curvature: superior, concave portion of the stomach where the lesser omentum attaches to from the liver
* Rugae/Gastric folds: capability for stomach to expand when full
52
What are the different gastric regions and their structures?
* Gastric regions
– Cardiac region: region closest to esophagus’ entry to stomach
– Fundic region/Fundus: dome-shaped region and is the superior part of the stomach
– Body: Majority region of the stomach, inferior of the cardiac and fundic region.
– Pyloric region/pylorus: narrow and is the part of the stomach that leads to the SI
* Pyloric antrum: wider part of the pylus next to the body
* Pyloric sphincter: circular smooth muscle at the border of the stomach and SI controlling amount of chyme entering the SI
53
What types of cells are within the mucosa of the stomach and what do they produce?
Mucosa: made of simple columnar epithelium
» Mucous cells: secrete mucin to protect stomach mucosa from HCl and gastric enzymes
» G /enteroendocrine cells: secrete gastrin, hormone that stimulates chief and parietal cells secretion
» Parietal cells : secretes...
* HCl- : hydrochloric acid that denatures proteins to help chemical digestion and activates gastric enzymes
* Intrinsic factor: molecules that bind to vitamin B12 to help absorption in ileum
» Chief cells: secretes digestive enzymes
* Pepsinogen: inactive enzyme which becomes pepsin to digest proteins
* Gastric lipase: to digest triglycerides
54
What is different about the muscularis externa of the stomach compared to the rest of the alimentary canal?
Oblique layer: inner smooth muscle layer to help the churning and mixing by the stomach
55
What is the general functions of the small intestine and examples of what it does?
Functions:
– Mechanical digestion: segmentation
– Chemical digestion: secretions of digestive enzymes; most digestion occurs here
– Absorption: most of the absorption of nutrients and water occurs here
56
What are the regions of the small intestines?
- Duodenum
- Jejunum
- Ileum
57
What structures do you find in each region of the small intestines?
– Duodenum: short initial part of SI
* Greater/Major duodenal papilla: location where bile and pancreatic juice enter the duodenum
* Lesser/minor duodenal papilla: location where some pancreatic juice from the accessory pancreatic duct enters the duodenum
* Duodenal / Brunner’sglands/ submucosal glands: located in submucosal layer and makes alkaline mucus to protect duodenum from acidic chyme from stomach
– Jejunum: middle portion of the SI where most of the chemical digestion and absorption takes place
– Ileum: final part of SI
* Peyer's patch/aggregated lymphoid nodules: located at the lamina propria and is a group of lymphatic nodules to defend against bacteria from the LI
* Ileocecal valve/sphincter: sphincter that regulates chyme going into LI
58
Name the different structures of the small intestine and their definitions
– Circular folds /plicae circularis: folds of the mucosal and part of the submucosal layers in the SI to help increase the surface area for absorption
– Villi: microscopic projections of the circular folds to increase surface area for absorption
– Microvilli /brush border: even smaller projections of a villus to increase surface area for absorption that is on the apical side of the simple columnar epithelial cells and contains brush border enzymes for final breakdown of nutrients
– Lacteals: lymphatic capillary for lipid absorption within each villus
– Intestinal glands/ intestinal crypts of Lieberkuhn: glands that dip into the mucosa layer.
– Cells:
* Absorptive cells: simple columnar epithelial cells that absorbs nutrients
* Goblet cells: that produce mucus to lubricate chyme and protect against acidic chyme
59
What are within the layers of the small intestine and their function?
* Mucosa
– Simple columnar epithelium:
* Absorptive cells/enterocytes: for absorption and contain brush border enzymes to digest proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids into really small molecules for absorption
* Tight junctions: between cells to prevent enzymes from going through
* Goblet cells: secrete mucus
– Lamina propria:
* Lacteal: lymphatic capillary absorbs lipids
* Blood capillaries: absorb nutrients
* Submucosa
– Duodenal/Brunner glands: (duodenum) secretes bicarbonate-rich mucus to neutralize acidic chyme from the stomach
– Peyer's patch: (ileum) large lymphatic nodules
60
What does the chyme become in the large intestine?
Becomes feces
61
What is the different between the large intestine and small intestine?
LI is large not in length but in diameter compared to SI.
62
What are the general functions of the large intestine?
– Propulsion: mass peristaltic movements occurs only a few times a day, otherwise really slow
– Limited chemical digestion due to the bacteria that reside here
– Absorb water, electrolytes, vitamins
– Stores feces
63
What are the regions of the large intestine and their associated structures and general functions?
– Cecum: initial part of LI where chyme from ileum goes through ileocecal valve
* Vermiform appendix: contains lymphatic nodules
– Colon: region between ileocecal junction and rectum
* Ascending colon: part of LI going superior from cecum
– Hepatic /right colic flexure: bend connecting ascending and transverse colon
* Transverse colon: part of LI goes transversely from the hepatic flexure to splenic flexure; where the transverse mesocolon connects to posterior abdominal wall
– Splenic/left colic flexure: bend connecting transverse and descending colon
* Descending colon: part of LI from splenic flexure to sigmoid colon
* Sigmoid colon: S-shaped part of LI that curves into pelvic cavity; where sigmoid mesocolon connects to posterior abdominopelvic wall
– Rectum : part of LI that connects sigmoid colon to anal canal and stores feces
– Anal canal: passes feces during defecation
* Internal anal sphincter: involuntary smooth muscle
* External anal sphincter: voluntary skeletal muscles
64
What are the large intestine structures and their general functions?
– Intestinal gland/crypts: Contains mucosa and submucosa layer; LI contains no villi
– Mucosa: simple columnar epithelium for absorption of water, electrolytes, and vitamins; and lots of goblet cells to help lubricate feces
– Muscularis externa: outer longitudinal layer does not completely surround cecum and colon
* Tenia coli: longitudinal bundles of smooth muscles that makes haustra
– Haustra: sacs that are formed by the taenia coli
– Epicolic appendages/ Omental appendices: lobules of fat hanging from the external surface
65
What is the general function of the liver?
– Produce bile: for emulsifcation of fats (mechanical digestion): breaking down fats to help chemical digestion
– Detoxify drugs
– Synthesize blood plasma proteins
– Breaks down damaged cells (ie: rbc’s)
– Breaks down glycogen into glucose
66
What are the lobes of the liver?
– Right
– Left
– Caudate lobe: adjacent to the IVC on the inferior side of liver
– Quadrate lobe: adjacent to the gallbladder on the inferior side of liver
67
What are the ligaments of the liver and their function/prior function?
- Falciform ligament: peritoneal fold securing liver to anterior wall
- Round ligament / Ligamentum teres: remnant of umbilical vein at the inferior portion of the falciform ligament
* Was the umbilical vein: blood returning to fetal heart from chorionic villi where it is oxygenated and gets nutrients
- Ligamentum venosum: remnant of ductus venosus on the inferior part of the liver
* Was the ductus venosus: carries the oxygen and nutrient picked up by the liver and pass it to IFC
68
What are the vessels coming through the porta hepatis and what do they carry?
– Hepatic portal vein: nutrient rich blood from stomach and intestines
– Hepatic artery proper: oxygen-rich blood from celiac trunk
– Common hepatic duct: bile exits from liver
69
What are within a hepatic lobule and their general functions?
– Hepatocytes: liver cells which make bile, detoxify, store excess nutrients, synthesize plasma proteins
– Vessels
* Portal triads : branch of hepatic portal vein, hepatic artery proper, and bile duct
– Hepatic portal vein: blood from GI tract, spleen, pancreas rich in nutrients but poor in oxygen is delivered to the liver to be detoxified
– Hepatic artery proper: delivers nutrients and oxygenated blood to liver
– Bile duct: drains bile from bile canaliculi to common hepatic duct
* Hepatic sinusoids : leaky capillaries where blood from branches of hepatic portal vein and hepatic artery proper mix and empty into...
* Central vein: drains blood from each lobule
* Hepatic vein: drains blood from central veins and empties into IVC
* Bile canaliculi: drains bile from hepatocytes into bile ductules
70
What is the blood flow through the hepatic portal system?
Inferior mesenteric vein
Splenic vein
Superior mesenteric vein
Hepatic Portal vein
Hepatic portal venules
Hepatic sinusoids
Central veins
Hepatic veins
Inferior vena cava
71
What is the flow of the biliary duct system?
- Hepatocytes secretes bile into...
- Bile canaliculi and then to...
- Bile ductules of the portal triad which empty into...
- R/L hepatic ducts when converge into...
- Common hepatic duct which then joins with
- Cystic duct that connects with the...
- Common bile duct or Gallbladder (stores and releases bile when fat is present in duodenum and releases it through the cystic duct)
- Cystic duct: which becomes the...
- Common bile duct which then connects with the main pancreatic duct to form the...
- Hepatopancreatic ampulla contains..
* Hepatopancreatic sphincter/sphincter of Oddi: smooth muscles that regulates the release of bile into the duodenum through the...
Major duodenal papilla into the duodenum
72
What are the regions of the pancreas?
– Head: wide and close to the duodenum
– Body: bulk of the pancreas
– Tail: narrow portion of pancreas towards the spleen
73
What is the general function of the gallbladder?
– Concentrate and store bile from the liver via cystic duct
– Bile acids /salts: steroids from cholesterol which helps the mechanical digestion of fats
74
What is the general function of the pancreas?
– Endocrine: produces hormones (ie: insulin,
glucagon)
– Exocrine: secretes digestive enzymes and bicarbonate
75
What are the structures of the pancreas and their general functions?
– Pancreatic islets/islet of Langerhans: endocrine function in making hormones
– Acini: clusters of acinar cells
* Acinar cells: cells that produce and secrete digestive enzymes in pancreatic juice
– Main pancreatic duct: drains pancreatic juice and produce sodium bicarbonate
* Hepatopancreatic ampulla/Ampulla of Vater: common bile duct merges with main pancreatic duct to enter through...
– Hepatopancreatic sphincter/sphincter of Oddi: smooth muscle that regulates the secretion of bile and pancreatic juice
* Major duodenal papilla: pancreatic juice from main pancreatic duct drains into the duodenum
– Accessory pancreatic duct: drains some pancreatic juice into the duodenum through...
* Minor duodenal papilla: location where pancreatic juice from accessory pancreatic duct drains into duodenum
76
What is the flow of pancreatic juice?
1) Pancreatic juice from acini → Main pancreatic duct → Hepatopancreatic ampulla (w/ Common bile duct) → Major duodenal papilla → Duodenum
2) Pancreatic juice from acini → Accessory pancreatic duct (w/ Main pancreatic duct) → Minor duodenal papilla → Duodenum
77
What are the structures of the urinary system and their general functions?
– Kidneys: filter waste products of blood and converts it to urine
– Urinary tract: transport / stores urine
* Ureters: transport urine to urinary bladder
* Urinary bladder: stores urine
* Urethra: voids urine
78
What are the general functions of the urinary system?
– Urine storage: stores urine until ready to micturate
– Urine excretion: excrete metabolic waste via micturition
– Blood volume regulation: regulates blood volume which also affects blood pressure
– Erythrocyte production regulation: when low blood oxygen is detected by kidneys, erythropoietin hormone of kidney secreted to increase erythrocyte production in red bone marrow
– Ion and acid/base balance: regulates ions and acid-base balance by retaining or secreting ions and other molecules
79
Where are the kidneys located?
retroperitoneal (behind peritoneum) organ surrounded by other tissues with right kidney slightly inferior than left kidney due to liver
80
What is the renal hilum?
Renal hilum: region where vessels, nerves, and ureters enter kidney
81
What is the fibrous capsule and its general function?
Fibrous capsule /renal capsule: made of dense irregular connective tissue and covers outer surface of kidney
- Helps maintain shape of kidney, protect it, and prevent pathogens entering kidney
82
What is a renal lobe?
Renal lobe: consists of parts of renal cortex and renal medulla
83
Where is the renal cortex vs renal medulla located on a kidney?
– Renal cortex: outer part of kidney
– Renal medulla: inner part of kidney
84
What are renal columns and renal pyramids?
– Renal columns: extensions of cortex that go into medulla and between...
– Renal pyramids/medullary pyramids: cone-shaped structures where some tubules of nephrons dip into
85
What are different parts of a renal pyramid?
– Base of renal pyramids/corticomedullary junction: located where cortex and medulla meet
– Renal papilla: apex of renal pyramid that ends at the minor calyx
86
Urine from the collecting duct will go through which structures to the ureter?
– Minor calyx: location where collecting ducts empty urine
into located next to renal papilla
– Major calyx: location where many minor calyces empty urine into
– Renal pelvis: collects urine from major calyces and transport it to ureter
87
Trace the blood flow within the kidney and where do these arteries, veins and capillaries are located at?
– Renal artery
– Segmental artery
– Interlobar artery
– Arcuate artery
– Cortical radiating artery / Interlobular artery
– Afferent arteriole / Afferent glomerular arteriole
– Glomerulus
– Efferent arteriole / Efferent glomerular arteriole
– Capillary beds
* Peritubular capillaries OR Vasa recta
– Cortical radiating vein / Interlobular vein
– Arcuate vein
– Interlobar vein
– Renal vein
88
What are the structures within the uriniferous tubules?
– Nephron
* Renal corpuscle
– Glomerulus
– Glomerular capsule
* Proximal convoluted tubule
* Loop of Henle
– Descending limb
– Ascending limb
* Distal convoluted tubule
– Collecting tubules
– Collecting ducts
89
What are the structures that make up a nephron?
* Renal corpuscle
– Glomerulus
– Glomerular capsule
* Proximal convoluted tubule
* Loop of Henle
– Descending limb
– Ascending limb
* Distal convoluted tubule
90
What are the structures that make up a renal corpuscle?
* Renal corpuscle
– Glomerulus
– Glomerular capsule
91
What are the two types of nephrons and their locations?
– Cortical nephrons: (85%) nephrons and their tubules that stay mostly in the cortex with some parts that go to the medulla
– Juxtamedullary nephrons: (15%) have long nephron loops that go into the medulla
92
What is a nephron and its general function?
Nephron: functional unit of the kidney made up of the following structures
– General functions:
* Filtration: blood is filtered through glomerulus to glomerular capsule
* Reabsorption: moving molecules from the tubules to the blood
* Secretion: moving molecules from the blood into the tubules
93
What is the glomerulus and what does it do?
Glomerulus: fenestrated (pores) capillary bed where blood is filtered into glomerular capsule
94
What is the glomerular capsule? What is it composed of and their definitions?
– Glomerular capsule/Bowman’s capsule: epithelial capsule
* Visceral layer: directly covers glomerulus
– Podocyte: specialized cells
» Filtration slits: spaces between pedicels to allow blood plasma to pass through
❖Slit/Filtration membrane= filtration slits of podocytes + fenestrated glomerulus
➢ Capsular space: filtrate is formed from filtration of blood into this space
* Parietal layer: made of simple squamous epithelium
95
What is the proximal convoluted tubule vs. the distal convoluted tubule?
- Proximal convoluted tubule (PCT): simple cuboidal epithelium with microvilli (fuzzy in lumen) to increase reabsorption of nutrients like glucose, ions, vitamins, plasma proteins, and water
- Distal convoluted tubule (DCT): Lined with simple cuboidal epithelium with short, sparse microvilli (more clear in lumen); secrete K+ and H+ and reabsorbs water and Na+
96
What are the different parts of the nephron loop and their definitions?
- Descending limb: goes down into the medulla and lined
* Thick segment: with simple cuboidal epithelium (thick)
* Thin segment: with simple squamous epithelium (thin); reabsorbs water
- Ascending limb: returns back into cortex
* Thin segment: lined with simple squamous
epithelium (thin)
* Thick segment: lined with simple cuboidal epithelium (thick) ; reabsorbs ions
97
What hormones act on the distal convoluted tubule?
ADH and Aldosterone released when low blood volume/concentration of ions; affects DCT to cause reabsorption of water and solutes
98
Name all the structures for the flow of filtrate to urine. Define each of these structures
* Collecting tubules
* Collecting duct: transition from simple cuboidal epithelium to simple columnar epithelium; runs through renal medulla to the renal papilla and empty into
– ADH and Aldosterone affects collecting tubules and ducts
* Minor calyx: collects urine from papillary ducts and transport it to...
* Major calyx: which in turns transport urine to...
* Renal pelvis: which transport urine to ureters
99
What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus and what structures forms this?
* Juxtaglomerular apparatus (JGA): regulates blood pressure by affecting the glomerular filtration rate
– Juxtaglomerular cells (JG/granular cells)
– Macula densa
100
Where are the JG cells located at and what do they release?
– Juxtaglomerular cells (JG/granular cells): modified smooth muscles of afferent arteriole near renal corpuscle
* Release ADH when bp is low which helps increase aldosterone to increase bp
101
Where are the macula densa located at and what is its general function?
– Macula densa: modified epithelial cells in DCT adjacent to JGC that detects amount of ion concentration of filtrate
* Regulates ion concentration of filtrate by releasing paracrines to JG cells
102
What are the ureters and its layers?
Ureters: tubes that transport urine from kidneys to urinary bladder
– Layers
* Mucosa:
– Transiitonal epithelium: allowing it to be distended and also impermeable to urine
– Lamina propria: dense irregular connective tissue
* Muscularis: undergoes peristalsis for urine
– Inner longitudinal layer
– Outer circular layer
* Adventitia: areolar connective tissue
103
What is the urinary bladder?
Urinary bladder: expandable to store urine and a retroperitoneal organ
104
What is the median umbilical ligament? What was it in the fetus?
Median umbilical ligament: remnant of embryological urachus
- Previously the umbilical arteries
105
What are the layers found on the urinary bladder?
* Mucosa: contains rugae that allows for distention
– Transitional epithelium: allowing distention and impermeable to urine
– Lamina propria: connective tissue that is vascularized
* Submucosa: dense irregular connective tissue
* Muscularis: forms Detrusor muscles (3 layers) which contracts during micturition and contains the internal urethral sphincter (involuntary smooth muscle)
* Adventitia: areolar connective tissue (except the superior side which is covered with peritoneum = serosa)
106
What is the urogenital diaphragm? What structure does it have?
Urogenital diaphragm: muscle of the pelvic floor that contains...
– External urethral sphincter: voluntary skeletal muscle
107
What is the urethra?
Urethra: transport urine from the urinary bladder to the environment
108
What layers are on the urethra?
* Mucosa: lined with different ET depending on sex
- Stratified squamous epithelium (Females)
- Transitional epithelium (Prostatic urethra)
- Stratified columnar or pseudostratified columnar epithelium (Membranous urethra)
- Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (proximal Spongy urethra)
- Stratified squamous epithelium (distal Spongy urethra)
* Muscularis: helps move urine to environment
* Adventitia: connective tissue
109
What are the different regions of the male urethra?
- Prostatic urethra
- Membranous urethra
- Spongy urethra
110
What is the external urethral orifice?
Opening at the end of the urethra
111
List the structures for the flow of filtrate and urine
- Glomerular capsule (filtrate)
- Proximal convoluted tubule
- Descending limb of nephron loop
- Ascending limb of nephron loop
- Distal convoluted tubule
- Collecting tubule (affected by ADH and Aldosterone)
- Collecting duct (urine)
- Minor calyxes
- Major calyxes
- Renal pelvis
- Ureter
- Urinary bladder (internal urethral sphincter)
- Prostatic urethra
- Membranous urethra (external urethral sphincter)
- Spongy urethra
* External urethral oriface
112
What is the term for structures that have common developmental origins?
Homologues
113
What are the primary sex organs called? What do they produce? How are they different between the sexes?
– Gonads: primary sex organs that produce gametes and sex hormones
* Ovaries: female gonads
– Oocyte: female gamete
– Estrogen and progesterone: hormones produced by ovaries
* Testes: male gonads
– Sperm: male gamete
– Testosterone: hormones produced by testes
114
The erectile organ that is highly sensitive is known as _________ in females and ________ in males
Clitoris (F), Glans Penis (M)
115
The organ that protects and cover the reproductive structure is known as ____________ in females and __________ in
males
Labia Majora (F), Scrotum (M)
116
This reproductive organ secretes mucin for lubrication is known as ____________ in females and __________ in males
Greater vestibular gland (F), Bulbourethral (M)
117
What is the perineum?
Perineum: diamond-shaped region from pubis to coccyx
118
What is the urogenital triangle? Which organs can be found here?
Urogenital triangle: anterior triangle of perineum contains
- Females: Clitoris, urethral orifice, vagina
- Males: Base of penis, scrotum
119
What is the anal triangle? Which organ is found there?
Anal triangle: posterior triangle of perineum
- Anus
120
Which perineal muscles do you need to know
External anal sphincter
External urethral sphincter
121
What is the primary sex organ for females?
Ovaries
122
What are the accessory sex organs for females?
Uterine tubes
Uterus
Vagina
Clitoris
Mammary glands
123
What are the regions of the ovaries? What structures are found in these regions?
* Ovarian Cortex: outer region with ovarian follicles
– Ovarian follicles: contains follicular cells and ovum at different stages of meiosis
* Ovarian Medulla: inner region of ovary where areolar connective tissue; blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves
124
What is the differences between meiosis and mitosis?
Meiosis: produces 2 identical haploid cells
Mitosis: produces 4 different haploid cells
125
What are diploid cells? What are haploid cells?
– Diploid (2N): cells with 23 pairs of chromosomes
– Haploid (N): cells with 23 chromosomes
126
What is oogenesis?
Oogenesis: ovum production
127
What are the cells within oogenesis? How many chromosomes are in each cell? Which process do these cells undergo to
be formed? When does meiosis get halted?
Oogonium (2N) → undergoes mitosis
- Primary oocyte (2N) →undergoes meiosis I; stops at Prophase I until puberty
- First polar body (N) AND Secondary oocyte (N) →undergoes meiosis II; stops at metaphase II until fertilization
- Second polar body (N) AND Ovum (N)
128
What is the name of the cell when the sperm fertilizes the egg?
Zygote
129
What are the cells that make up an ovarian follicle? What is their general function?
– Oogonium or Oocyte: depending on the meiotic stage it is in
– Granulosa cells: supporting cells that does many functions, amongst producing estradiol
– Theca cells: depending on the follicular stage may/may not be present, supporting cells that does many functions, amongst producing androstenedione (androgen) for granulosa cells to make estradiol
130
What is folliculogenesis?
Folliculogenesis: development of the follicle
131
What are the different types of follicles and how are they different? What cells do they contain?
– Primordial follicle: forms prior to birth, contains primary oocyte with single layer of SQUAMOUS GRANULOSA CELLS to pass nutrients and chemical signals to oocyte; located at the periphery of ovary near tunica albuginea
– Primary follicle: consist of a larger primary oocyte and with single layer of CUBOIDAL GRANULOSA CELLS
– Secondary follicle: consist of even larger primary oocyte with MULTIPLE layers of cuboidal granulosa cells
* Theca cells: begins to form around granulosa cells
* Antrum: fluid filled cavity from the granulosa cells
* Zona pellucida is formed (glycoprotein gel around oocyte)
– Preovulatory/Graafian/mature follicle: Antrum enlarges on one side of the follicle (usually one is formed each month to ovulate), with secondary oocyte
* Theca externa: outer fibrous capsule rich in blood vessels
* Theca interna: inner layer that secretes androstenedione/testosterone and transport it to granulosa cells to convert to estradiol (via aromatase)
* Cumulus oophorus: granulosa cells around the oocyte
– Corona radiata: innermost granulosa cells around zona pellicida
132
What structure in the ovary appear after ovulation?
Corpus luteum: remaining follicle within ovary that releases estradiol, inhibin, and mostly progesterone that is regulated by LH to maintain endometrial lining; causes negative feedback
133
What structure does the corpus luteum become, and why?
Corpus albicans: scar tissue from degeneration of corpus luteum when no pregnancy
134
What are the ligaments that suspends the ovary? Where does it suspend the ovary to?
- Ovarian ligament: attaches ovary medially to uterus
- Suspensory ligament: attaches ovary on its lateral side to pelvic wall
135
What does the suspensory ligaments contain?
contains ovarian arteries and veins and nerves
136
What are the ligaments that suspends the uterus? Where does it suspend the uterus to?
- Round ligament: from lateral sides of uterus that attach to labia majora by going through the inguinal canal
- Uterosacral / sacrocervical ligaments: connects inferior part of uterus to sacrum
137
What are the uterine tubes called and its general function? What type of epithelium does it have?
Uterine tubes/fallopian tubes/oviducts: location of fertilization and passageway for oocyte/fertilized egg to uterus; contains CILIATED SIMPLE COLUMNAR EPITHELIUM to propel oocyte toward uterus
138
What are the different regions of the uterine tube?
– Infundibulum: lateral portion of uterine tube that first receives oocyte
* Fimbriae: finger like projections that wave to draw oocyte into uterine tube
– Ampulla: expanded area of uterine tube where fertilization usually takes place
– Isthmus: medial portion of uterine tube that leads to the uterus
139
What are the structures that draw the oocyte to the uterine tube called?
Fimbriae
140
Where does fertilization usually occur?
Ampulla
141
What is the uterus and its general function?
Uterus: location where embryo implants and supports, protects, nourish developing embryo/fetus. Also forms placenta and produces hormone
142
What are the regions of the uterus?
– Fundus: anterior, rounded region between uterine tubes
– Body: major part of uterus
– Cervix: narrow inferior portion of uterus that continues to the vagina
143
What are the layers of the uterus and their general function?
Uterine wall
– Perimetrium: serosa that is continuous with the broad ligament
– Myometrium: Contains a thick layer of three layers of smooth muscle
– Endometrium: Mucosa of simple columnar epithelium and lamina propria with uterine glands.
* Basal layer/stratum basalis: next to myometrium and is the permanent layer
* Functional layer/stratum functionalis: layer that sheds during menstruation
144
How many days is the sexual cycle for females generally?
Menstrual cycle occurs ~28 days with ovaries ovulating alternating months
145
Name the stages of the ovarian cycle and their definition
Ovarian cycle (similar to Folliculogensis)
- Follicular phase: Day 1-13 ; Primordial follicles, Primary follicles, Secondary follicles, Preovulatory follicle
- Ovulation: Day 14
- Luteal phase: Day 15-28: Corpus luteum and Corpus albicans
146
Name the stages of the menstrual cycle
Menstrual phase
Proliferative phase
Secretory phase
Premenstrual phase
147
What occurs during the menstrual phase?
Menstrual phase/menses: Day 1-5; when enough menstrual fluid occurs , discharges it into vagina (40 ml of blood and 35 ml serous fluid)
- The stratum functionalis is lost leaving only stratum basalis
148
What occurs during the proliferative phase?
Proliferative phase: Day 5-14: after menstruation
- Estrogen from follicles increase mitosis of stratum basalis and regrowth of blood vessels in uterus restoring stratum functionalis
149
What occurs during the secretory phase?
Secretory phase: Day 15-26; endometrium continues to thicken via secretion and fluid accumulation NOT mitosis
– Corpus luteum secretes mainly progesterone causing endometrial glands to secrete glycogen
– Glands are wider, longer, more coiled
– Endometrium is soft, wet, nutritious bed for embryonic development for pregnancy
150
What occurs during the premenstrual phase?
Premenstraul/ischemic phase: Day 26-28; endometrial degeneration when no pregnancy occurs
– The corpus luteum becomes corpus albicans, decreasing progesterone
* Contractions of spiral arteries in endometrium causing ischemia and necrosis (which includes menstrual cramps)
* Endometrial glands and blood vessels degenerate causing blood to accumulate in stratum functionalis and forms menstrual fluid
151
What is the vagina and its general function?
Vagina: birth canal, copulatory organ, and passageway for menstruation (between urethra and rectum); simple cuboidal epithelium (child) but becomes stratified squamous epithelium (adult)
152
What is the hymen?
Hymen: mucosa folds at vaginal orifice that can be ruptured by intercourse, tampons, medical exams, strenuous exercise
153
What are the layers of the vagina?
- Mucosa: with rugae that is lined with nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
- Muscularis: made of smooth muscle
- Adventitia: made of fibrous connective tissue
154
What is the vulva?
Vulva: female external genitalia
155
What structures are part of the vulva? What is the definition of these structures?
– Labia majora: thick folds of skin and connective tissue with sweat and sebaceous glands and pubic hair (more lateral than...)
– Labia minora: folds internal to labia majora; hairless with areolar connective tissue
156
What is the vestibule?
Vestibule: region between the labia minora
157
What structures are found within the vestibule and their definition?
– Urethral orifice/opening: opening to the urethra
– Vaginal orifice/opening: opening to the vagina
– Greater vestibular glands/glands of Bartholin: secrete mucin to make mucus as a lubricant during intercourse (homologous to bulbourethral glands)
– Prepuce: external fold of labia minora that covers clitoris during erection
– Clitoris: erectile tissue that provides pleasure during intercourse
* Corpora cavernosa: erectile tissue that make the body of the clitoris
158
What are the homologues of the greater vestibular glands and the clitoris in the male?
Greater vestibular gland (F) = Bulbourethral glands (M)
Clitoris (F) = Penis (M)
159
What are mammary glands?
Mammary glands: “breast” are in both sexes but females can secrete breast milk which contain nutrients for infants and defense
160
What structures are found on mammary glands?
– Areola: pigmented area around nipple
* Areolar glands: sebaceous glands within areola to prevent cracking/chapping during nursing
– Nipple: erectile tissue that project from center of breast and to transport milk
– Adipose tissue
161
Name the structures as an oocyte/ovum passes through from the ovaries to the environment
Fimbriae → Infundibulum → Ampulla → Isthmus → uterus
162
What is the primary sex organ for males?
Testes
163
What the accessory reproductive organs for males?
Reproductive ducts
- Seminiferous tubules
- Epididymis
- Vas deferens
- Ejaculatory duct
- Urethra
Reproductive Glands
- Prostate
- Seminal vesicles
- Bulbourethral glands
- External Genitalia
- Penis
- Scrotum
164
What are the testes and its general function?
Testes: male gonad that produces sperm as gametes and androgens
165
What is spermatogenesis?
Spermatogenesis: male meiosis for sperm production
166
What are the cells involved of spermatogenesis? How many chromosomes are in each cell?
Spermatogonia (2N) → undergoes mitosis
- Primary spermatocytes (2N) → undergoes meiosis I to produce...
- Secondary spermatocytes (N) → undergoes meiosis II to produce...
- Spermatids (N) → undergoes spermiogenisis to produce...
- Spermatozoa (N)
167
What is spermiogenesis?
A proccess that forms a spermatazoa from a spermatid
168
What are the regions of a spermatozoa and their general functions?
* Head: Loses some cytoplasm and elongates
– Acrosome cap: forms with digestive enzymes to penetrate secondary oocyte
* Midpiece: region with mitochondria to provide energy for...
* Flagellum tail: develops for mobility
169
Where does sperm mature at and are stored?
Epididyms
170
What is the scrotum?
Scrotum: skin covering testes to help control ideal temperature (34°C) for sperm production and storage
171
What are the muscles found in the scrotum? What are their general functions?
- Dartos muscle: depending on temperature, (↑ 𝑇) smooth muscle deep to skin causing the skin to smooth by relaxing, increasing heat loss or (↓ 𝑇) wrinkle by contracting to increase the thickness, reducing heat loss
- Cremaster muscle: muscle from internal oblique causing the testes to descend (↑ 𝑇) by relaxing or ascend (↓ 𝑇) by contracting depending on temperature.
172
What are the structures found in the spermatic cord and its general functions?
* Vas deferens: tube connecting the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
* Nerves
* Blood vessels
– Testicular arteries: bring oxygenated, nutrition–rich, and warm blood to testes
– Testicular veins: bring “deoxygenated”, wastes, and cooler blood from testes
» Papfiniform plexus: veins surrounds the testicular arteries to absorb the heat of arteriole blood as it enters the testes
* Cremaster muscle: muscle from internal oblique causing the testes to descend (↑ 𝑇) by relaxing or ascend (↓ 𝑇) by contracting depending on temperature.
173
What two general structures found in the testes and what cells are found in each structures and their general functions?
– Seminiferous tubules: tubules where spermatogenesis occurs and contains...
* Supporting cells/ sustentacular cells/ nurse cells/ Sertoli cells/ sustentocytes : helps support, protect, nourish the spermatogenic cells and forms blood-testis barrier via tight junctions protecting the sperm from immune system
* Spermatogenic cells
* Myoid cells: smooth muscle like cells that contract to maybe help squeeze sperm and fluid through tubules and out of testes
– Interstitial spaces: spaces between seminiferous tubules and contains...
* Interstitial cells/cells of Leydig: produces androgens including testosterone
174
What is the blood-testis barrier, what forms it, and why is it important?
tight junctions protecting the sperm from immune system formed by the supporting cells
175
What are the structures and functions as sperm travels from the testes to the environment?
Testes:male gonad that produces sperm as gametes and androgens
Epididymis: stores and matures spermatozoa
Vas deferens: transport sperm from epididymis to the ejaculatory duct
Ejaculatory duct: merges vas deferens and seminal vesicles found within the prostate
Urethra
- Prostatic urethra
- Membranous urethra
- Spongy urethra
- External urethral orifice
176
What are the epithelium of the different regions of the male urethra?
– Prostatic urethra: goes through prostate gland
* Transitional epithelium
– Membranous urethra: goes through the urogenital diaphragm where the external urethral sphincter is located
* Stratified columnar or pseudostratified columnar epithelium
– Spongy/penile urethra: longest portion and within the corpus spongiosum; where secretion from bulbourethral glands enter
* Pseudostratified columnar epithelium (proximal)
* Stratified squamous epithelium (distal)
177
What are the accessory glands and their general functions?
Accessory glands: secretes seminal fluid to help neutralize acidic environment of vagina and provide nutrients for sperm
– Seminal vesicles
– Prostate gland
– Bulbourethral/Cowper glands
178
What are the seminal vesicles and what do they secrete and their general functions? What is the definition of semen?
– Posterior of urinary bladder and lateral to ampulla of vas deferens
– Secrete seminal fluid (60%) that contains
* Fructose: energy source for sperm
* Bicarbonate: neutralize acidic vagina
* Prostaglandins: help thin mucus at external os and cause peristaltic waves in uterus and uterine tubes to help sperm toward egg
* Prosemenogelin: converted to semenogelin which becomes sticky to prevent semen from draining back from female reproductive system
* Semen= seminal fluid + sperm
179
What is the prostate gland and what secretions does it secrete and its general functions?
– Inferior to urinary bladder
– Secrete seminal fluid (30%) into prostatic urethra
* Citric acid: for sperm health
* Prostate-specific antigen (PSA): liqudify semen after ejaculation; used as an indicator for prostate cancer potential
180
What is the bulbourethral glands and what secretions does it secrete and its general functions?
– Within urogenital diaphragm
– Secrete seminal fluid into spongy urethra
* Mucin: to make mucus as a lubricant and alkaline buffer for the urethra PRIOR to ejaculation
181
Which accessory glands secretes the most to least?
Seminal vesicle → Prostate gland → Bulbourethral gland
182
What is the penis?
Penis: male copulatory organ to deposit semen in vagina
– Erectile tissue: contains venous sinuses/venous spaces around a central artery that engorges with blood during sexual excitement causing erection
183
What erectile tissue is the penis made out of and their general function?
* Corpora cavernosum dorsal, lateral erectile tissue terminates at shaft of penis
* Corpus spongiosum: ventral erectile tissue containing spongy urethra
– Bulb: medial root for corpus spongiosum surrounded by the bulbospongiosus muscle
– Glans penis: Tip of penis
» Prepuce/foreskin: skin on the distal part of penis that partially covers glans
184
How many corpora cavernosa do males have vs corpus spongiosum?
2 corpora cavernosum
1 corpus spongiosum
185
What is the glans and the prepuce?
– Glans penis: Tip of penis
» Prepuce/foreskin: skin on the distal part of penis that partially covers glans
186
What is fertilization?
Fertilization: occurs after sperm’s chromosomes and ovum’s chromosomes come together forming a zygote (fertilized egg)
187
What are the structures during human development and their definitions?
- Zygote
- Blastocyst: Day 4 after fertilization and is multicellular and reaching the uterus which implants to the uterus
- Embryo: (week 2 – 8), continues to forms tissues
- Fetus: End of week 8, contains all organs but tissues are still differentiating
- Neonate: Child after birth that is less than a month old
