Anatomy Unit 2: Chps. 6-13 Flashcards
1
Q
How many bones are there in an adult skeleton?
A
206 bones in adult skeleton
2
Q
How does the amount of bones compare to an adult vs a fetus?
A
There more bones when younger but they get fused as we get older
3
Q
What are sesamoid bones? Name examples
A
Sesamoid bones: bones formed within tendons usually due to stress varies from person to person
• Patella
• Pisiform
4
Q
What does articulated vs disarticulated mean?
A
• Articulated skeleton: a skeleton that has all the bones together; forms a joint
• Disarticulated skeleton: a skeleton that has bones separated; bones by itself
5
Q
What is the difference between axial vs appendicular skeletons? Which bones are in each?
A
– Axial skeleton: bones from the central axis
• Skull with auditory ossicles and hyoid bone
• Vertebral column
• Thoracic cage: ribs, sternum, thoracic vertebrae
– Appendicular skeleton: bones of the upper and lower extremities and pectoral and pelvic girdles
6
Q
What are the different skull cavities (6)? Describe each one
A
Cranial cavity: protect brain
Orbit: houses the eyes (made from the frontal, ethmoid, sphenoid, maxilla, lacrimal, palatine, and zygomatic bones)
Nasal cavity: air passageway
- choanae/internal nares :passage way from nasal cavity to pharynx
Oral/buccal cavity: air/food passageway
Middle and inner ear cavities: sound vibration/protect middle and inner ear organs for hearing and equilibrium
Paranasal sinuses: lighten skull and resonant voice
– Frontalsinus
– Maxillary sinus
– Ethmoid sinus/air cells
– Sphenoid sinus
7
Q
Name the different bones of the orbital complex (7)
A
– Frontal bone
– Sphenoid
– Maxilla
– Zygomatic bone
– Palatine bone
– Lacrimal bone
– Ethmoid
8
Q
What are sutures? Name the different types of sutures
A
• Suture: immovable joints between skull bones made of dense regular connective tissue which can fuse as we age
– Sagittal suture
– Coronal suture
– Squamous suture
– Lambdoid suture
9
Q
Name the bones of the skull
A
• Skull (22)
– Cranial Bones (8):
• Frontal
• Parietal (2)
• Temporal (2)
• Occipital
• Sphenoid
• Ethmoid
– Facial Bones (14):
• Nasal (2)
• Maxillary (2)
• Lacrimal (2)
• Zygomatic (2)
• Palatine (2)
• Inferior nasal conchae (2)
• Vomer
• Mandible
10
Q
Name the cranial bones and what do these do?
A
– Cranial Bones (8): form the cranium that surrounds/protects the brain
• Frontal
• Parietal (2)
• Temporal (2)
• Occipital
• Sphenoid
• Ethmoid
11
Q
Name the facial bones and what does it do?
A
– Facial Bones (14): form the face and protect entrance of digestive and respiratory systems; do not have direct contact with brain, supporting teeth and face
• Nasal (2)
• Maxillary (2)
• Lacrimal (2)
• Zygomatic (2)
• Palatine (2)
• Inferior nasal conchae (2)
• Vomer
• Mandible
12
Q
What feature can we find on the frontal bone? What does it do again?
A
– Frontal sinus: lighten skull and resonant voice
13
Q
Where are the parietal bones located at?
A
posterior to frontal bone
14
Q
What features are on the temporal bones(7) and describe them?
A
Zygomatic process: forms zygomatic arch with the temporal process of the zygomatic bone
Mandibular fossa: articulates with mandible
External acoustic meatus / External auditory meatus / Auditory canal: opening to ear canal
Styloid process: attach muscles of tongue, pharynx, and hyoid bone
Mastoid process: sinus that communicate with the middle-ear cavity
Internal acoustic meatus / Internal auditory meatus: passageway for vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII)
Carotid canal: passageway for internal carotid artery
15
Q
What features (4) are on the occipital bone and describe them?
A
Foramen magnum: passageway for spinal cord
Occipital condyle: articulates with atlas (C1)
Hypoglossal canal: passageway for hypoglossal nerve (CN XII)
External occipital protuberance: where nuchal ligament binds skull to vertebral column
16
Q
What feature is formed between the temporal and occipital bone? What does it do?
A
Jugular foramen: passageway for internal jugular vein
17
Q
What features are on the sphenoid (4) and describe them?
A
Sphenoid sinus: lighten skull and resonant voice
Sella turcica: where the pituitary gland (hypophysis) resides
Optic foramen: passageway for optic nerve (CN II)
Choanae/posterior nasal apertures/internal nares: passageway from nasal cavity to pharynx
18
Q
What features are on the ethmoid (6) and describe them?
A
Perpendicular plate: forms the superior part of nasal septum (divides right and left nasal cavity)
Crista galli: attachment for meninges
Cribriform plate / Horizontal plate: roof of nasal cavity
Olfactory foramina / Cribriform foramina: passageways for olfactory nerves (CN I)
Ethmoid sinuses / Ethmoid air cells: lighten skull and resonant voice
Middle nasal conchae: lateral to perpendicular plate; causing air turbulence to clean, humidify, and warm air during inhalation
19
Q
What features are on the maxilla (3) and describe them?
A
Maxillary sinus: lighten our jaw and moisten the air; lighten skull and resonant voice
Alveolar margin of maxilla: location where the teeth articulates with the maxilla (teeth are NOT bones)
Palatine process: forms part of the hard palate (bony part of the roof of the mouth) along with the horizontal plate of the palatine bone
20
Q
What features are on the palatine bones and describe them?
A
Horizontal plate: forms the rest of the hard palate and articulates with the palatine process of the maxilla
21
Q
What bones and features forms the hard palate?
A
The palatine process of the maxilla + horizontal plate of the palatine bone = hard palate
22
Q
What features are on the zygomatic bones and describe them?
A
Temporal process: forms part of the zygomatic arch (along with the zygomatic process of the temporal bone)
23
Q
What bones and features forms the zygomatic arch?
A
Temporal process of the zygomatic bone + Zygomatic process of the temporal bone = zygomatic arch
24
Q
What does the lacrimal bones form?
A
Forms part of the medial orbit
– Flatter and “wider” than nasal bone
25
What does the nasal bones form?
forms bridge of the nose
– Longer and “thinner” than lacrimal bone
26
What do the inferior nasal conchae do?
For air turbulence to humidify, moisten, cleanse air during inhalation
27
What does the vomer form?
forms inferior half of the nasal septum
28
What two bones is the nasal septum made of? What feature of the other bone forms this?
Vomer + Perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone = nasal septum
29
What features are on the mandible (5) and describe them?
Condylar process: posterior process that contains the mandibular condyle
Mandibular condyle: articulates with mandibular fossa of the temporal bone
Coronoid process: insertion of the temporalis muscle
Alveolar margin of the mandible: location where the teeth articulates with the mandible (teeth are NOT bones)
Mental foramen: passageway for nerves and bv’s for the chin; anterior side of the mandible
30
What are the bones that are associated with the skull?
Auditory ossicles and hyoid
31
What are the auditory ossicles?
• Auditory ossicles: transmit sound vibrations from tympanic membrane (eardrum) to produce sound sensation
– Malleus: known as hammer
– Incus: known as anvil
– Stapes: known as stirrup
32
What is the hyoid?
• Hyoid: bone for muscle attachment but doesn’t articulate with another bone
33
What are fontanels? Name the different fontanels
• Fontanels: fibrous membrane between unfused cranial bones
Anterior fontanel / Frontal fontanel
Posterior fontanel / Occipital fontanel
Anterolateral fontanel / Sphenoidal fontanel
Posterolateral fontanel / Mastoid fontanel
34
What bones of the skull are different between a fetus and an adult?
Frontal bone and mandible are separate at first, but fuse into one bone later in life
35
What is the vertebral column and what is its description?
• Vertebral column(26/33): protects the spinal cord, absorb stress, supports skull and trunk
• Functions of the vertebral column
– Support for the body and head
– Maintain upright position
– Transfer weight from axial to lower appendicular skeleton
– Passageway for spinal nerves
– Protect spinal cord
36
How many vertebrae of each type do we have?
– Cervical (7)
– Thoracic (12)
– Lumbar (5)
– Sacrum (1, but fusion of 5)
– Coccyx (1, but fusion of ~4)
37
What are intervertebral discs? What tissue makes this?
• Intervertebral disc: FIBROCARTILAGE between most vertebrae to help absorb shock and support weight of the body.
38
What are the differences between primary and secondary curvatures?
• Primary curvatures: C-shape curve developed during fetal development (posteriorly)
• Secondary curvatures: curvatures developed after birth (anteriorly)
39
What are the primary curvatures we retain as an adult?
– Thoracic curvature
– Sacral curvature
40
What are the secondary curvatures that we develop? How is it developed?
– Cervical curvature: forms when lifting head while crawling
– Lumbar curvature: forms when starting to walk
41
Name some of the abnormal spinal curvatures and how they differ
Scoliosis: abnormal lateral curvature usually at thoracic region
Kyphosis: exaggerated thoracic curvature
Lordosis: exaggerated lumbar curvature
42
For the general vertebra, name the features (10) and their descriptions
Body: weight-bearing part of vertebra where intervertebral discs connect to other vertebrae
Vertebral arch: posterior structure
Pedicle: posterolateral margins from the body (“walls”)
Lamina: extend from pedicles posteromedially (“roof”)
Spinous process: extend from laminae; for muscle/ligament attachments
Transverse process: for muscle/ligament attachments
Vertebral foramen: passageway for spinal cord
Superior articular process with facets: locations where vertebrae articulate with another vertebrae’s inferior articular process with facets
Inferior articular process with facets: locations where vertebrae articulate with each other
Intervertebral foramen (articulated): passageway for spinal nerves to pass through in an articulated vertebral column
43
What structures forms the vertebral arch?
The pedicle ("wall") and lamina ("roof")
44
What are some of the features on a cervical vertebra?
– Features
• Smaller body
• Shorter spinous process and bifid (except for C7)
!! • Transverse foramina: passageway for vertebral arteries and veins
– Specialized cervical vertebrae
• Atlas (C1)
• Axis (C2)
45
What do you call C1? What does it do?
What do you call C2? What does it do? What feature allows this to occur?
• Atlas (C1): contains no body or spinous process; superior articular facets articulate with occipital condyle for nodding
• Axis (C2)
– Dens/odontoid process: for shaking head
46
What features are on the thoracic vertebrae?
– Costal facets vs demifacets: articulates with ribs; demifacets = half of facet
• Superior costal facets/demifacets on the lateral body articulating with head of rib
• Inferior costal facets/demifacets on the lateral body articulating with head of rib
• Transverse costal facets (except T11-T12) on transverse process articulating with tubercle of rib
– Spinous process pointed and angled downward
– Superior articular facets face posteriorly
– Inferior articular facets face anteriorly (except T12)
47
What features are on the lumbar vertebrae?
– Superior articular facets face medially
– Inferior articular facets face laterally
– Spinal process tends to be flatter
– Body tends to be bigger
48
How many bones are fused for the sacrum?
5 vertebrae
49
What features do you find on the sacrum(4)?
Ala: lateral, superior features
Apex: inferior feature that articulates with the coccyx
Promontory: anterior portion of the body
Body
50
What is the sacroiliac joint?
joint between the sacrum and ossa coxae on auricular surfaces
51
How many bones are fused for the coccyx?
~4 fused vertebrae
52
What bones forms the thoracic cage? What is its function?
– Thoracic cage: protects heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus, etc
Thoracic vertebrae
Sternum
Ribs
53
What are the different regions of the sternum?
Manubrium
Body
Xiphoid process
54
How many ribs do we have?
12 pairs
55
How are ribs categorized and how many of each do we have in each category?
True ribs (1-7 pairs): those that connect to costal cartilages that connect to sternum
False ribs (8-12 pairs): those that connect to costal cartilages that connect to other costal cartilages that connect to the sternum or do not connect to the sternum
Floating ribs (11-12 pairs): those that do not connect to the sternum; no tubercles
56
What features are there on the ribs and their descriptions?
Head: articulates w/ thoracic vertebra’s body (superior/inferior costal facet/demifacet)
Tubercle: articulates w/ thoracic vertebra’s transverse costal facet
Costal groove: inferior, medial margin where intercostal nerves and blood vessels run
57
Know which features / bones of the axial skeleton articulate with each other
58
What bones are on the pectoral girdle?
• Pectoral girdle: articulates with the trunk and supports upper extremities
– Clavicle
– Scapula
59
Name the features on the clavicle and their descriptions.
Sternal end / Medial end: rounded, medial end; articulates with manubrium of sternum
Acromial end / Lateral end: flat, lateral end
Conoid tubercle: near acromial end and on the
inferior side
60
Name the features on the scapula (9) and their descriptions.
Medial border / Vertebral border: medial edge
Lateral border / Axillary border: edge closest to axilla
Subscapular fossa: ANTERIOR surface of scapula
Scapular spine: POSTERIOR ridge
Supraspinous fossa: depression superior to the spine
Infraspinous fossa: depression inferior to the spine
Acromion: articulates with the clavicle
Coracoid process: anterior attachment for tendons of biceps brachii
Glenoid cavity / Glenoid fossa: articulates with head of humerus
61
What are the bones of the upper extremity (6)?
Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpal Bones (8)
Metacarpal Bones (5)
Phalanges (14)
62
Name the features on the humerus and their descriptions.
Head: proximal end that articulates with glenoid cavity of scapula
Surgical neck: narrow portion distal to tubercles
Greater tubercle: located lateral end for muscle attachment
Lesser tubercle: located anterior, medial and muscle attachment
Deltoid tuberosity: rough area of the shaft insertion of deltoid muscle
Capitulum: lateral where articulates with the head of radius
Trochlea: medial where articulates with the trochlear notch of ulna
Lateral epicondyle: distal part for muscle attachment
Medial epicondyle: distal part for muscle attachment
Olecranon fossa: posterior that accommodates for olecranon of ulna
63
Name the features on the radius and their descriptions.
Head: circular in shape and articulates with the capitulum and radial fossa of humerus
Radial tuberosity: attaches to biceps brachii tendon
Radial styloid process: lateral, distal process
Ulnar notch: medial, distal that articulates with head of ulna
64
Name the features on the ulna and their descriptions.
Olecranon: posterior and goes into the olecranon fossa of the humerus
Coronoid process: anterior and goes into coronoid fossa of the humerus
Radial notch: lateral that articulates with the head of the radius
Head: on the distal end
Ulnar styloid process: posteromedial process
65
Name all the different carpal bones and their locations
Scaphoid
Lunate
Triquetral
Pisiform
Trapezium
Trapezoid
Capitate
Hamate
66
How many bones are in phalanx I?
*Know the numbering of the metacarpal bones
*Know the naming of each phalanx
2 bones: distal phalanx I and proximala phalanx 1
67
What bones are in the pelvis?
• Pelvis: protects viscera of pelvic cavity
Sacrum
Coccyx
Ossa coxae / coxal bones / pelvic bones / innominate bones
68
What are the bones that make up the ossa coxae?
Ilium
Ischium
Pubis
69
What are the features of the ilium?
Iliac crest
Greater sciatic notch
70
Where is the ilium, ischium, and pubis located relative to each other?
• Ilium: largest and superior bone of os coxae
• Ischium: inferior, posterior bone of os coxae
• Pubis: inferior, anterior bone of os coxae
71
What are the features of the ossa coxae?
Acetabulum
Obturator foramen
Pubic symphysis
72
How do male vs female pelvis differ?
– Females: wider with larger pelvic inlet & outlet; > 90° pubic arch
– Males: denser; < 90° pubic arch
73
What are the bones of the lower extremity?
Femur
Patella
Tibia
Fibula
Tarsal Bones (7)
Metatarsal Bones (5)
Phalanges (14)
74
What are the features of the femur and their descriptions?
Head: articulates with acetabulum of os coxa
Fovea capitis: depression where ligament that connects to acetabulum
Neck: joins head to shaft of femur
Greater trochanter: lateral projection
Lesser trochanter: posteromedial projection
Linea aspera: where many thigh muscles attaches
Medial condyle: articulates with the tibia
Lateral condyle:articulates with the tibia
Intercondylar fossa: depression between condyles
75
What is the patella?
sesamoid bone that protects the knee joint
76
What is the difference between the tibia and fibula?
Tibia is medial to the fibula; Fibula is lateral to the tibia
77
What are the features of the tibia and their descriptions?
Medial condyle: articulates with the medial condyle of femur
Intercondylar eminence: ridge between the condyles
Lateral condyle: articulates with the lateral condyle of femur
Tibial tuberosity: anterior rough surface
Medial malleolus: medial distal part
78
What is the medial meniscus and lateral meniscus? What type of tissues are they made of?
made of fibrocartilage and synovial fluid to absorb shock and lubricate knee joint
79
What are the features of the fibula and their descriptions?
• Fibula: leg bone; lateral to tibia
Head: thicker, broader, rounder, proximal
Lateral malleolus: angled, distal
80
Name the different tarsal bones and their locations relative to each other
Talus
Calcaneus
Navicular
Medial cuneiform
Intermediate cuneiform
Lateral cuneiform
Cuboid
81
How many bones are in phalanx I?
*Know the numbering of the metatarsal bones
*Know the naming of each phalanx
2 bones: distal phalanx I and proximal phalanx I
82
Know which features / bones of the appendicular skeleton articulate with each other
83
Muscle shapes of AXIAL muscles and examples of each (know its action, location, and the purpose of their name)
Fusiform: tapered ends with a thick belly
– Biceps brachii
– Gastrocnemius
Parallel: parallel fascicles, high endurance but not that much force
– Rectus abdominis
– Sartorius
– Masseter
Triangular: triangular shaped muscle with broad origin and narrow insertion, allowing a lot of fascicles = a lot of force
– Pectoralis major
– Temporalis
Pennate: feather-shaped with oblique insertion to tendon; can fit most amount of muscles fibers with their length = more force
Unipennate: all fascicles attach to tendon on one side
• Semimembranosus
Bipennate: fascicles attach to tendon on both sides
• Rectus femoris
Multipennate: multiple fascicles attaching to tendon
• Deltoid
Sphincters: ring of muscles so closes when contracted
– Orbicularis oculi
– Orbicularis oris
– External urethral sphincter
– External anal sphincter
84
Actions of skeletal muscles and give one example
Agonist: muscle that has the most force during an action
– Brachialis
Synergist: muscle that aids the prime mover and could stabilize the movement of the agonist
– biceps brachii
Fixator: muscle that prevents bone movement
Antagonist: muscle that opposes the agonist, preventing excessive movement
– Triceps brachii
85
Muscles of Facial Expression and its actions
• Epicranius / Occipitofrontalis muscle: Elevate eyebrows, wrinkles skin of forehead, retracts scalp; fixes galea aponeurotica
• Orbicularis oculi: Sphincter of eyelids that closes eyes
• Orbicularis oris: Closes lips, kissing, speech
• Buccinator: Compress cheeks and can expel air and liquids
• Platysma: Pull lower lip inferiorly; tenses skin of neck
86
Extrinsic Eye Muscles and its actions
Medial rectus: adduction of the eye
Lateral rectus: abduction of the eye
Superior rectus: pulls eye superiorly and slightly medially
Inferior rectus: pulls eye inferiorly and slightly medially
Superior oblique: depresses the eye and turns eye laterally (goes medial to lateral)
Trochlea (not a muscle): tendon loop where the superior oblique passes through
Inferior oblique:elevates the eye and turns eye laterally
87
Muscles of Mastication and its actions
Temporalis: Elevate, retract, lateral and medial excursion of mandible
Masseter: Elevate mouth with small roles in protraction, retraction, lateral and medial excursion
88
Muscles of Neck
Sternocleidomastoid:
• Unilateral contraction cause lateral flexion and
contralateral rotation
• Bilateral contraction causes flexion of the neck; aids in forced inhalation
89
Muscles of Respiration and its actions
Diaphragm: Prime mover for inspiration; contraction aids in childbirth, expulsion of urine and feces
External intercostals: Aids in inspiration by elevating and protracting ribs 2-12
Internal intercostals: Aids in forced expiration by depressing and retracting ribs
90
Abdominal Muscles and its actions
Rectus abdominis: Flexes lumbar region of vertebral column
Internal oblique:
• Unilateral contraction causes lateral flexion and ipsilateral rotation of waist
• Bilateral contraction causes flexion of vertebral column and aids in forced expiration, childbirth,
urination, defecation
External oblique:
• Unilateral contraction causes lateral flexion and contralateral rotation of waist
• Bilateral contraction: flexes vertebral column, maintains posture; aids in forced expiration, childbirth, urination, defecation
Transversus abdominis: Flexion of vertebral column and aids in forced expiration, childbirth, urination, defecation
91
Muscles of the Pelvic Floor and its actions
Urogenital diaphragm
External urethral sphincter: Voluntary sphincter to retain urine
External anal sphincter: Voluntary sphincter to retain feces
92
Muscles of the Thorax and its actions (6)
• Anterior muscles:
– Pectoralis minor: Protract and depress scapula
– Serratus anterior: Prime mover for protraction of scapula; rotate scapula superiorly
•Posterior muscles :
– Trapezius:
• Elevate and superior rotate scapula
• Retract scapula
• Depress and rotate scapula inferiorly
– Levator scapulae: Elevate scapula; flex neck laterally; retract scapula;
rotate scapula inferiorly
– Rhomboid major: Elevate and retract scapula and inferiorly rotate
– Rhomboid minor: Elevate and retract scapula and inferiorly rotate
93
Muscles that Move the Arm and its actions (4)
Pectoralis major: Prime mover of arm flexion; adducts and medial rotation of arm
Latissimus dorsi: Prime mover of arm extension; adducts and medial rotation of arm
Teres major: Extends; adducts; medially rotate arm
Deltoid:
• Flex and medially rotate arm
• Prime mover of abduction of arm
• Extend and laterally rotate arm
94
Rotator Cuff, know which muscles make up the rotator cuff (4)
Supraspinatus: Abduction of arm
Infraspinatus: Laterally rotates arm; adducts
Teres minor: Laterally rotates arm; adducts
Subscapularis: Medially rotates arm
95
Muscles that Move the Forearm and its actions (6)
• Flexors:
Brachialis:Prime mover of elbow flexion
Biceps brachii: Synergist of elbow flexion; supinator of forearm
Brachioradialis: Flexion of elbow
• Extensors:
Triceps brachii: Prime mover of extension of elbow
• Pronators:
Pronator quadratus: Prime mover of forearm pronation
• Supinator
Supinator: Supinates forearm
96
Muscles that move the Hand and Fingers and its actions
• Anterior Muscles:
Flexor carpi radialis: Flexes wrists and abducts hand
Palmaris longus: Flexion of wrist
Flexor carpi ulnaris: Flexion of wrist; adducts hand
Flexor digitorum superficialis: Flexion of the wrist, metacarpophalangeal, and interphalangeal joints
Flexor pollicis longus: Flexes phalanges of thumb
Pronator quadratus: Prime mover of forearm pronation
• Posterior Muscles:
Extensor carpi radialis longus: Extends wrist, radial flexion/abducts hand
Extensor carpi radialis brevis: Extends wrist, radial flexion/abducts hand
Extensor digitorum: Extends wrist, metacarpophalangeal, interphalangeal joints
Extensor carpi ulnaris: Extends wrist; ulnar flexion of wrist/adducts hand
Extensor pollicis brevis: Extends metacarpal I and proximal phalanx of thumb
Extensor pollicis longus: Extends distal phalanx I
Supinator: Supinates forearm
97
Muscles that Move the Thigh/Leg and its actions
• Anterior Muscles :
Iliopsoas: Flexes thigh
Iliacus: Flexes thigh
Psoas major: Flexes thigh
Sartorius: Flexes thigh; abducts and rotates thigh laterally; flexes leg and rotates leg
Quadriceps:
– Rectus femoris: Flexes thigh; extends knee
– Vastus lateralis: Extends knee
– Vastus intermedius; Extends knee
– Vastus medialis: Extends knee
• Medial Muscles :
Adductor magnus: Adducts thigh and flexes; and laterally rotates thigh;
extend thigh
Adductor longus: Adducts thigh; flexes thigh
Adductor brevis: Adducts thigh; flexes thigh
Pectineus: Adducts thigh; flexes thigh
Gracilis: Adducts thigh; flexes thigh; flexes knee
• Lateral Muscles:
Tensor fasciae latae: Abducts thigh; medial rotate thigh
• Posterior Muscles:
Gluteus maximus: Extend thigh; laterally rotate thigh
Gluteus medius: Abducts thigh; medially rotate thigh
Hamstrings:
– Biceps femoris: Extends thigh; flexes knee; laterally rotates leg
– Semimembranosus: Extends thigh; flexes knee; medially rotates leg
– Semitendinosus: Extends thigh; flexes knee; medially rotates leg
98
Muscles that Move the Foot (7)
• Anterior muscles:
Tibialis anterior: Dorsiflex foot; invert foot
Extensor digitorum longus: Extends toes II-V; dorsiflex foot
• Lateral muscles:
Fibularis longus / Peroneus longus/ Peroneus brevis: Everts foot; plantar flexor
• Posterior Muscles:
Gastrocnemius: Flexes leg; plantar flexor
Soleus: Plantar flexor
Flexor digitorum longus: Flexes phalanges II-V; plantar flexor
Tibialis posterior: Inverts foot; plantar flexion
99
Tendons/Ligaments (know which muscles connect to these, except the plantar fascia)
Linea alba: external oblique, internal oblique, transversus oblique
Iliotibial band / Iliotibial tract: aponeurosis connecting tensor fasciae latae and gluteus maximus to lateral condyle of tibia
Calcaneal tendon: attaches gastrocnemius and soleus to calcaneus
Plantar fascia: aponeurosis that support arch of the foot from calcaneus to metatarsal bones
100
What is surface anatomy?
study of external surface of the body
101
What is palpation?
touching to feel internal structures through skin
102
What surface anatomy structures can you find on the neck? What does it contain? What
clinical significance is there for these structures?
– Anterior triangle: between the mandible, midline of neck, and sternocleidomastoid
• Contains submandibular gland, carotid arteries, jugular veins
– Posterior triangle: between sternocleidomastoid, trapezius, and clavicle
• Contains nerves like the cervical plexus, phrenic nerve, accessory nerve (CN XI), brachial plexus
• Contains blood vessels like external jugular vein
*!! Lacerations to these parts of the neck can cause significant blood loss and regarding to the posterior triangle, partial paralysis and loss of sensation of the neck.
103
What structures can you find on the back? What clinical significance is there for this structure?
Triangle of auscultation: between the trapezius, latissimus dorsi, and scapula
• Where stethoscope is placed to listen to lung sounds, with minimum coverage of muscles
104
What structures can you find on the abdomen? What clinical significance is there for this
structure?
Linea alba: vertical groove from the umbilicus from xiphoid process to pubic symphysis where abdominal muscles insert to
• Surgical entry since no muscle damage and minimum bleeding
105
What structures can you find on the upper appendage? What clinical significance is there for these structures?
Cubital fossa:
• Stethoscope placed over brachial artery to measure blood pressure
• meidan cubital vein to use to draw blood
Anatomical snuff box:
• Was used to sniff tobacco
• Pain within this may indicate scaphoid fracture
Thenar eminence: Lesion of ulnar nerve will cause these muscles to atrophy
Hypothenar eminence: Lesion of ulnar nerve will cause these muscles to atrophy
106
What structures can you find on the lower appendage? What clinical significance is there for these structures?
Femoral triangle:
• Femoral artery, vein, and nerve located here
• Nerve is more lateral than vein (most of the time more deep/medial)
• Used for angioplasty and to put pressure here to prevent blood loss of the leg
Popliteal fossa:
• Contains tibial and common fibular nerve, popliteal artery and vein
107
Where are the locations of the safe injection points?
Ventral gluteal site
• Gluteus medius instead of gluteus maximus
– Gluteus maximus contains sciatic nerve, gluteal nerves and blood vessels
– Not for small children: too much uncertainty so instead do it at the vastus lateralis
» Same with epipen
108
Where are these pulse points located at?
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Superficial temporal artery
Facial artery
Common carotid artery
Brachial artery
Radial artery
Femoral artery
Popliteal artery
Posterior tibial artery
Dosalis pedis artery
109
What is cartilage?
gel-like ground substance that makes it stronger than connective tissue proper but not as strong as osseous tissue (but is more flexible)
110
What type of cells are in cartilage?
Chondroblasts: secrete gel-like matrix
Chondrocytes: Cartilage cells that are entrapped in lacunae
111
What is the space around chondrocytes called?
Lacunae
112
What surrounds cartilage to help with growth and repair of the cartilage?
Perichondrium: surrounds cartilage around bone that helps with growth and repair of cartilage
113
What are the functions of cartilage? Name examples
– Structural support for soft tissue
– Gliding surface at articulations (joints) where two bones meet
– Model for forming bones: hyaline cartilage is replaced by bone during development
114
What are articulations?
joints
115
Which type of cartilage is replaced by bone?
hyaline cartilage
116
Name the 3 types of cartilage and their descriptions. Name examples of each and the types of fibers that are in each.
• Hyaline cartilage: Most common and weakest. Scattered chondrocytes within lacunae and COLLAGEN are too thin. Provides support by being flexible and resilient.
– (Forms fetal skeleton and within long bones during growth, nose, trachea, most of larynx, costal cartilage)
• Elastic cartilage: Many ELASTIC FIBERS and branched around chondrocytes making it resilient and flexible. Returns to its original shape
– (Epiglottis, external ear)
– Elastic fibers
• Fibrocartilage: Visible COLLAGEN fibers and chondrocytes may arrange in parallel rows. Very durable to resist shock and compression
– (Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, menisci of knee joint)
– Collagen fibers
117
What are the functions of bone?
• Support and Protection
• Movement: attachment sites for skeletal muscles for contraction causing movement
• Hemopoiesis: production of blood cells
• Mineral and Energy storage: 90% of calcium and phosphate stored in bone
118
What is hemopoiesis?
Hemopoiesis: production of blood cells
119
What is the difference between red bone marrow vs yellow bone marrow?
– Red bone marrow: produces blood cells
– Yellow bone marrow: fat storage for energy
> Red bone marrow turns into fat
120
What is the difference between red bone marrow in children vs adults?
• Children: red bone marrow located in spongy bone and medullary cavity of bones
• Adults: red bone marrow located at axial skeleton and proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur
121
What is stored in bone? Why are they stored?
90% of calcium and phosphate stored in bone
– Calcium: needed for muscle contraction, blood clotting, and nerve impulse
– Phosphate: needed for ATP
– Yellow bone marrow: fat storage for energy
122
What are the different regions of the bones?
• Diaphysis: cylindrical shaft of the bone
• Epiphysis: ends of the bone; larger to strengthen joints (increase surface area for articulation and tendon/ligament attachments)
– Proximal epiphysis: proximal end of the bone
– Distal epiphysis: distal end of the bone
• Metaphysis: region between diaphysis and epiphysis
123
What is the epiphyseal plate vs epiphyseal line? Which regions are these found?
– Epiphyseal plate: in a growing bone it is made of hyaline cartilage to make the bone longer
– Epiphyseal line: remnant of the epiphyseal plate in adults
> Found in metaphysis region
124
What is articular cartilage?
Articular cartilage: hyaline cartilage covering the epiphysis to reduce friction and absorb shock
125
What is medullary cavity and what can be found in it?
Medullary cavity: hollow space within diaphysis (red marrow in children, yellow marrow in adults)
126
What is endosteium?
Endosteium: covers the internal surface of bone (ie: medullary cavity);
• contains osteoprogenitor cells, osteoblasts, and osteoclasts for bone growth and remodeling
127
What is periosteum?
Periosteum: covers the outer surface of bone except those covered by articular cartilage; made of dense irregular connective tissue. Protects bone anchors blood vessels and nerves to bone and contains osteoprogenitor cells and osteoblasts for growth and repair
128
Name the different types of bone cells and their descriptions
• Osteogenic cells/Osteoprogenitor cells: located at the endosteum and periosteum, these stem cells from mesenchyme. After mitosis, one cell remains as osteoprogenitor while the other becomes a osteoblast.
• Osteoblast: secrete bone matrix until they are trapped in their lacunae and then become osteocytes
• Osteocytes: mature bone cell within lacuna which detect mechanical stress and communicates this to osteoblasts to form new bone matrix
• Osteoclasts: phagocytic cells that have HCl which dissolves calcium and phosphate of the bone matrix releasing it to interstitial fluid and then to the blood; also contains lysosomes that dissolve organic portions of the matrix
129
What is the bone matrix made out of?
– Organic material: carbon and hydrogen compounds
• Bone cells
• Collagen fibers: gives bone its strength to resist stretching and twisting
• Ground substance: semisolid material that supports collagen fibers
– Inorganic material: gives strength to resist compression
• Hydroxyapatite: crystals around collagen fibers to harden the matrix into a solid during calcification
• Calcium phosphate: compose most of inorganic material in bone
130
What are the differences between compact/dense/cortical vs spongy/cancellous/trabecular
bone?
• Compact/dense/cortical bone: solid and dense bone
– Forms the outer part of long bone
• Spongy/cancellous/trabecular bone: porous bone
– Trabeculae: a lattice of narrow bone
– Forms the inner part and epiphyses of long bone
– Diploe: spongy bone between compact bone in flat bone
131
Compact bone contains many different structures. Name them and describe them (5)
Osteon/Haversian system: basic functional and structural unit, running parallel with the diaphysis
Central canal: passageway for blood vessels and nerves that supply the bone at the center of the osteon
Concentric lamellae: rings of osseous tissue around the central canal; have collagen running in opposite direction increasing the strength of bone
Osteocytes: bone cells trapped in lacunae with cytoplasmic extensions that travel through canaliculi
Canaliculi: small channels that connect lacunae or central canal where osteocytes communicate with each other so nutrients, wastes, gases can travel through the central canal and through osteocytes
Interstitial lamellae: parts of older osteons that have been resorbed
132
Where is spongy bone located at?
lines the inner parts of long bones and middle portions of flat bones
133
How does spongy bone differ from compact bone?
The spongy bone do NOT have osteons
134
What are trabeculae?
a lattice of narrow bone
135
What is ossification/osteogenesis?
forming of osseous tissue
136
What are the two types of ossification? How do the two types of ossification differ? Where are they found?
Intramembranous ossification: forms the flat bones of the skull, zygomatic bone, maxilla, mandible, and clavicle from mesenchyme connective tissue
Endochondral ossification: forms all other bones from hyaline cartilage
137
What tissue does intramembranous ossification originate from?
mesenchyme (embryonic CT)
138
Osteoid is also known as....?
bone matrix
139
What is calcification?
calcium phosphate are deposited into the osteoid (organic matrix of bone) making it solid and also trap osteoblasts in lacunae becoming osteocytes
140
What type of tissue does endochondral ossification originate from?
hyaline cartilage
141
What does hypertrophy mean?
grow
142
What does the remaining hyaline cartilage become? Where are they found?
Hyaline cartilage remain at epiphyseal plates (for growth) and articular cartilage
143
What do epiphyseal plates become? When does this occur?
Epiphyseal plates ossify when child grows into adult forming epiphyseal line
144
What occurs to the cartilage and bone production as we age?
As we age, cartilage production slows while bone production increases, thinning the epiphyseal plate into epiphyseal line
145
What does resorbing mean?
removing
146
Why does bone remodeling occur?
• Bone remodeling: depositing new osseous tissue and reabsorbing (removing) of old osseous tissue
– Helps maintain calcium and phosphate levels in body
147
How does stress affect our bones?
Stresses increase formation of bone (increase osteoblast activity)
148
As we age what occurs more?
As we age, in bone remodeling: resorption > deposition
149
Name two hormones that affect bone. How do each of these hormones affect bone? Which cells are affected?
• Calcitonin: produced by the thyroid gland when calcium in blood is increased
– Causes calcium deposits into bone by inhibiting osteoclast activity
• Parathyroid hormone (PTH): produced by the parathyroid gland when decrease calcium levels in blood
– Causes calcium resorption of bone by increasing osteoclast activity, inhibits osteoblast activity
150
What are the properties of muscle tissue and their definitions?
Excitability: Muscle cells respond to chemical signals called neurotransmitters and stretch causing changes in membrane potential of the muscle fiber
Contractility: Muscle fibers are unique because they contract (shorten) creating movement
Extensibility: Capability to stretch when antagonistic muscle contracts
Elasticity: Capability to recoil back to its resting length
151
What are the functions of skeletal muscle?
• Movement: voluntary contractions of muscles pull tendons moving bones
• Maintenance of posture: contraction of muscles stabilize joints and maintain body posture/position
– Some muscles are constantly contracted when awake
• Temperature regulation: heat is produced as byproduct of contraction to typically maintain body temperature
• Storage and movement of materials: contractions of circular muscles (sphincters) to store materials within the organ or relax to allow materials to move along
• Support/protect: sheets of muscles help protect organs and support them in place
• Energy storage: glycogen stored within muscles as a source of glucose for ATP production
152
What are direct vs indirect muscle attachments? Name types of indirect attachments and how they differ.
• Direct/fleshy attachments: CT attaching to bone are so short it looks like muscles directly attaching to bone
• Indirect attachments: CT is long enough from muscles when attached to bone
– Tendon: cordlike dense regular CT that connects muscles to bone/fascia/tendon/skin; continuous with endo, peri, epimysium and periosteum
• Retinaculum: band of CT that tendons pass under
– Aponeurosis: sheet of tendon that connects muscles to bone/fascia/tendon/skin
153
What are origins, insertions, actions?
• Origin: usually the stationary end of muscle attachment
• Insertions: usually the mobile end of muscle attachment
• Action: movement that occurs during muscle contraction
154
How is skeletal muscle organized and the definitions of each level of organization?
• Deep fascia: dense irregular CT that separates muscles from other muscles
• Epimysium: : dense irregular CT that covers a muscle
• Perimysium: dense irregular CT that wraps around muscle fascicles with bv’s and nerves
• Endomysium: areolar CT that surround each muscle fiber with capillaries and nerve fibers
• Muscle: entire muscle that contains groups of muscle fascicles
• Muscle fascicle: group of muscle fibers
• Muscle fiber: single muscle cell consist of groups of myofibrils
• Sarcoplasm: cytoplasm of the muscle fiber
• Myofibril: groups of myofilaments
• Myofilament: protein filaments that participate in contraction
– Thick filament: groups of myosin
– Thin filaments: actin with tropomyosin and troponin
– Elastic filaments: titin/connectin
155
Skeletal muscle fiber components
• Sarcolemma: plasma membrane of the muscle fiber
• Transverse tubules: foldings of the sarcolemma that travel within the muscle fiber that allows impulses to travel
• Sarcoplasm: cytoplasm of the muscle fiber; contains...
– Myofibrils: bundles of myofilaments
– Glycogen: energy storage made of many glucose
– Myoglobin: stores oxygen
– Mitochondria: lots of them to provide ATP for muscles
– Nuclei: multinucleated cell
– Sarcoplasmic reticulum(SR): smooth endoplasmic reticulum that stores Ca2+
• Terminal cisternae: sacs at the ends of SR and are adjacent to T- tubules where majority of the Ca2+ is stored
– Triad: T-tubule & 2 terminal cisternae
156
Types of myofilaments, their proteins that make them, and their functions
• Thick filaments: made of myosin which contains a head and a tail
– Myosin head contains myosin ATPase and binds to actin
• Thin filaments: made of...
– Actin subunits that binds to myosin heads
– Regulatory proteins
• Tropomyosin: blocks actin from myosin heads
• Tropomin: binds to Ca2+ to cause a conformational change of tropomyosin, exposing the active site of G actin allowing myosin to bind to actin
• Elastic filaments: made of titin (connectin), anchoring thick filaments to Z discs
157
Sarcomere and its regions; How do these change during contraction/relaxation?
• A band: A=anisotropic (way of how it affects polarized light); darker bands due to thick myofilaments, but also contains locations where thick and thin myofilaments overlap
• H zone / H band: location where thick filaments present without thin filaments
• I band: I=isotropic; lighter bands due to thin myofilaments
• Z disc: location where thin and elastic myofilaments are anchored in.
• M line: location where thick myofilaments attach at
* All bands change distance as it contracts and relax except for A band
158
Neuromuscular junction and its components and their functions
• Synapse: location where axon terminal of neuron meets with target cell’s plasma membrane
• Synaptic knob: bulbous structure at the end of a nerve fiber
• Synaptic cleft: space between synaptic knob and sarcolemma’s junctional folds of muscle fiber
• Motor end plate: region of sarcolemma at the neuromuscular junction
• ACh receptors: proteins embedded in the sarcolemma that bind to ACh
• Acetylcholinesterase (AChE): enzyme that breaks down ACh within the synaptic cleft into acetate and choline
159
EC: Physiology of muscle contraction and relaxation (excitation, excitation-contraction coupling, contraction, relaxation); Know step-by-step what occurs so you can put them in order
1)Excitation
2) Excitation-contraction coupling
3) Contraction
4) Relaxation
160
What makes a motor unit? How do motor units differ from fine control vs strength?
• Somatic motor neurons from spinal cord and brainstem sends information to muscles for contraction; which can innervate many muscle fibers
• Motor unit: somatic motor neuron + all muscle fibers it innervates
– Fine control: somatic motor neuron innervates few amount of muscle fibers
– Strength: somatic motor neuron innervates many muscles fibers
161
What are the different muscle types (skeletal, cardiac, smooth)? What are their similarities and differences of each type.
– Skeletal Muscle: multinucleated, voluntary, striated that is usually attached to bone
• Striated: stripes of dark and light bands
• Voluntary: conscious control
– Cardiac Muscle: single & centrally located nucleus, involuntary, striated
• Intercalated discs: gap junctions that allow cardiac muscle cells to communicate with each other
– Smooth Muscle: single & centrally located nucleus, involuntary, non-striated
162
What is an articulation?
Articulation/joint: location where bone meet another bone, cartilage, or tooth
163
How are articulation categorized by function?
Synarthrosis: immovable joint, very stable
Amphiarthrosis: slightly movable joint
Diarthrosis: freely movable, less stability, and more prone to injury
164
How are articulations classified by structure?
Fibrous joints: bones held together by dense regular (fibrous) CT
Cartilaginous joints: bones joined together by cartilage
Synovial joints: joints with a fluid-filled cavity separated by cartilaginous articulating surfaces, along with ligaments
165
Name the different types of Fibrous joints and describe them. Give examples of each
• Sutures: synarthrodial joints between skull bones some become synostoses
– skull (lambdoid suture)
• Gomphoses: synarthrodial joints between alveolar processes of maxilla and mandible and teeth.
– Periodontal ligament (PDL): collagen fibers that attach teeth to alveolar process
• Syndesmoses: amphiarthrodial joints that have long dense regular connective tissue
– Distal tibiofibular joint (tibia and fibula)
– Interosseous membrane of the radioulnar joint (radius and ulna)
166
Name the different Cartilaginous joints and describe them. Give examples of each
– Synchondroses: synarthrodial joints where bone joins with hyaline cartilage
• Epiphyses and diaphysis of growing bone (becomes synostosis)
• Costochondral joint: joints between the ribs and hyaline cartilage
– Symphyses: amphiarthrodial joint where bone joins with fibrocartilage
• Pubic symphysis (between pubic bones)
• Intervertebral disc (between vertebral bodies)
– Collectively it can slightly move
167
What are Synovial joints? What are the features of a synovial joint?
• Synovial joints: diarthrodial joints with ligaments connecting bone to bone and a joint cavity
• Synovial cavity: cavity with synovial fluid to lubricate joints
– Articular capsule:
– Outer fibrous capsule continuous with the periosteum preventing bones from being pulled apart
– Inner synovial membrane: secretes synovial fluid into synovial cavity to reduce friction, nourish/remove wastes of chondrocytes, absorb shock
168
What are some other structures:
Tendon
Ligaments
Bursa
Tendon sheath
Tendon: dense regular connective tissue that attaches bone to muscles for movement
Ligaments: dense regular connective tissue that attaches bone to bone to strengthen and reinforce joints
Bursa: fibrous sac formed with synovial membrane that secrete synovial fluid between bone and soft tissues (muscle/skin/ligaments) to reduce friction
Tendon sheath: “elongated bursa” that wraps around a tendon
169
Name the different types of synovial joints categorized by planar movements
Nonaxial: does not move on a specific axis
Uniaxial: movement in one plane/axis
Biaxial: movement in two planes/axes
Multiaxial: movement in multiple planes/axes
170
Name the different types of synovial joints categorized by structure
Ball-and-socket
Saddle joint
Condylar joint / Ellipsoid joint
Hinge joint
Pivot joint
Gliding joint / Plane joint
171
What is a ball and socket joint? How many planes does it move? Name some examples
Ball-and-socket: multiaxial joint that is freely movable in 3 planes; head of one bone fits into socket of another bone
– Glenohumeral joint / shoulder joint: glenoid fossa of scapula with head of humerus; least stable
– Coxal joint / hip joint: acetabulum of os coxae with head of femur
172
What is a Saddle joint?
How many planes does it move?
Name some examples
Saddle joint: greater range of motion than condylar, at least 2 planes; convex and concave regions of bones forming a saddle shape
– Trapeziometacarpal (thumb) joint: allows for opposition of thumb to hold things
– Sternoclavicular joint: clavicular notch/ manubrium of sternum and sternal end of clavicle
173
What is a Condylar joint?
How many planes does it move?
Name some examples
Condylar joint / Ellipsoid joint: biaxial movement; oval/convex on one bone and concave on another bone
– Metacarpophalageal: between proximal phalanges II-V and the metacarpals
– Metatarsophalageal: between phalanges and metatarsals
174
What is a Hinge joint?
How many planes does it move?
Name some examples
Hinge joint: uniaxial joints that increase/decrease angle between concave bone and convex bone
– Humeroulnar + humeroradial joint/elbow joint: trochlea of humerus and trochlear notch of ulna + capitulum of humerus and head of radius
– Tibiofemoral joint / knee joint: condyles of the femur and condyles of the tibia
– Talocrural joint / ankle joint: talus of the tarsals and the articular surfaces of the distal tibia and fibula
– Interphalangeal joint: between phalanges
– Temporomandibular joint (TMJ): mandibular fossa of temporal bone and mandibular condyle
175
What is a Pivot joint?
How many planes does it move?
Name some examples
Pivot joint: uniaxial joints that rotate around bones by having a rounded surface rotate around a ringed surface
– Atlantoaxial joint: between the atlas and the dens/odontoid process of axis
– Radioulnar joint: between head of the radius and radial notch of the ulna
176
What is a Gliding/planar joint?
How many planes does it move?
Name some examples
Gliding/Plane joints: between flat bones and movement usually nonaxial
– Intercarpal joints or Intertarsal joints: joints between carpals or tarsals
– Superior + inferior articular facets of vertebrae
177
Name the different types of synovial movements, their descriptions and examples:
Zero position
Gliding motion
(Angular motion, Rotational motion, Special movements)
Zero position: anatomical position
Gliding motion: two surfaces slide against each other such as those in gliding/plane joints
Angular motion
Rotational motion
Special movements
178
What is angular motions?
Angular motion: increases/decreases angle between bones
179
Name examples of each type of angular motion and the definition of each (5)
Flexion: decrease joint angle
❖ ie: hinge and ball-and-socket joints
Extension: returns/increase joint angle to zero position
❖ Ie: Elbow, wrist, shoulder, hip, trunk, head
Abduction: moving away from the midline
❖ Ie: hip, shoulder, wrist, fingers, toes abduction
Adduction: moving toward midline
❖ Ie: hip, shoulder, wrist, fingers, toes adduction
Circumduction: circular motion
❖ Ie: shoulder, hip, wrist, ankle, phalanges of the manus, head
180
Name examples of each type of rotational motion and the definition of each
Lateral rotation: lateral movement of bone on longitudinal axis
❖Ie: humerus and femur
Medial rotation: medial movement of bone on longitudinal axis
❖Ie: humerus and femur
Pronationforearm movement that turns palm to face posteriorly (radius crosses over with ulna)
❖Ie: Radioulnar joint: between head of the radius and radial notch of the ulna
Supination: forearm movement that turns the palm to face anteriorly (radius parallel with ulna)
❖Ie: Radioulnar joint: between head of the radius and radial notch of the ulna
181
Name examples of each type of special movements and the definition of each (12)
• Depression: lowers in vertical direction of frontal plane
• Elevation: moves up a vertical direction in frontal plane
• Protraction: anterior movement in transverse plane
• Retraction: posterior movement in transverse plane
❖ Ie: scapula, mandible
• Lateral excursion: moving mandible laterally
• Medial excursion: moving mandible medially to zero position
❖ Ie: mandible
• Dorsiflexion: toes elevate
• Plantar flexion: toes point downward
❖ Ie: Talocrural joint: talus of the tarsals and the articular surfaces of the distal tibia and fibula
• Inversion: soles face medially
• Eversion: soles face laterally
❖ Ie: Intertarsal joints: joints between tarsals
• Opposition: thumb moves to touch other fingers
• Reposition: thumb returns to zero position
❖ Ie: Trapeziometacarpal joint (thumb): allows for opposition of thumb to hold things
182
What type of special movements are there for the head and trunk?
– Flexion of vertebral column: bending forwards
– Extension of vertebral column: straightening back up
• Hyperextension of vertebral column: bending backwards past zero position
– Right/Left rotation: twisting waist or head in that direction
183
What type of special movements are there for the mandible?
– Elevation/Depression
– Protraction/Retraction
– Lateral excursion : moving mandible laterally
– Medial excursion: moving mandible medially to zero position
184
What type of special movements are there for the hand and digits? (10)
– Flexion/Extension
– Abduction of the wrist/radial flexion: laterally moves the hand on the frontal plane
– Adduction of the wrist/ulnar flexion: medially moves the hand on the frontal plane
– Abduction of the digits: spreading fingers apart
– Adduction of the digits: bringing fingers back together again
– Flexion of the thumb/radial adduction: brings thumb medially to digits
– Extension of the thumb/radial abduction: brings thumb laterally away from digits
– Abduction of the thumb/palmar abduction: brings thumb anteriorly
– Adduction of the thumb/palmar adduction: brings thumb posteriorly back to
zero position
– Opposition: thumb moves to touch other fingers
– Reposition: thumb returns to zero position
185
What type of special movements are there for the foot?
– dorsiflexion: toes elevate
– plantarflexion: toes point downward
– Inversion: soles face medially
– Eversion: soles face laterally
186
Describe the knee joint and its features
Quadriceps tendon / Patellar tendon / Quadriceps femoris tendon: tendon of the quadriceps
Patellar ligament: extends from the patella and continuation of the quadriceps tendon which attaches to tibial tuberosity of tibia
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL): from posterior femur to anterior tibia to prevent hyperextension
Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL): from anterior femur to posterior tibia prevent posterior displacement of the tibia
Medial meniscus: C-shaped fibrocartilage pad on the medial condyle of the tibia for cushion
Lateral meniscus: C-shaped fibrocartilage pad on the lateral condyle of the tibia for cushion
