Anatomy Unit 1: Chps. 1,4,5 Flashcards
1
Q
What is the difference between anatomy and physiology? Give examples.
A
• Anatomy: study of structure
• Physiology: study of function
2
Q
What is the relationship between anatomy and physiology?
A
structure supports function
3
Q
What are the different types of anatomy?
A
• Microscopic Anatomy
– Histology
– Cytology
• Gross/Macroscopic Anatomy
– Systemic
– Regional
– Surface
• Other Branches of Anatomy
– Developmental
• Embryology
– Pathological anatomy
– Radiographic anatomy
– Functional anatomy
– Comparative
4
Q
What is microanatomy/ microscopic anatomy?
A
Microscopic anatomy: study of structures that need instruments to view
5
Q
What is histology?
A
Histology: the study of tissues
6
Q
What is gross / macroscopic anatomy?
A
Gross / macroscopic anatomy: the study of structures visible to unaided eyes
7
Q
What categories of anatomy are there in gross anatomy?
A
Systemic anatomy, regional anatomy, surface anatomy
8
Q
What is systemic anatomy? Give examples.
A
- Systemic anatomy: study of structures with a related function within organ systems
(EX: heart, stomach)
9
Q
What is regional anatomy? Give examples.
A
- Regional anatomy: study of structures of a region of the body
(EX: upper limbs, lower limbs)
10
Q
What is surface anatomy?
A
- Surface anatomy: study of structures visible on the surface of the body
(EX: hand, foot)
11
Q
What is comparative anatomy?
A
Comparative anatomy: compare/contrast anatomy of different species
12
Q
What is developmental anatomy? What type of anatomy is also included within developmental anatomy?
A
developmental anatomy: study of changes of structures from conception to death
- embryology
13
Q
What is embryology?
A
Embryology: study of developmental changes before birth
14
Q
What is pathological anatomy?
A
Pathological anatomy: structural changes in cells, tissues, and organs caused by disease
15
Q
What is pathology?
A
Pathology: study of disease
16
Q
What is radiographic anatomy?
A
Radiographic anatomy: study of internal structures using X-ray and other imaging techniques
17
Q
What is functional anatomy?
A
Functional anatomy: study of functional properties of body structures and efficiency of structures
18
Q
Name all the levels of the hierarchy of structural organization; know the order of these levels
A
Atom
Molecule
Organelle
Cell
Tissue
Organ
Organ system
Organism
Population
Communities
Ecosystem
Biosphere
19
Q
What is an atom?
A
smallest particle of matter
20
Q
What is a molecule?
A
made of two atoms or more
21
Q
What is an organelle?
A
microscopic structures that carry out function of a cell
22
Q
What is a cell?
A
smallest unit of life
23
Q
What is a tissue? Name all the different types of tissues (from future chapter)
A
Tissue: similar cells that have a specific function
- (epithelium, CT, muscle, nervous)
24
Q
What is an organ? Give examples. (use lab study guide for examples)
A
Organ: two or more tissues that work together for a function
- stomach, liver, esophagus
25
What is an organ system? Give examples
Organ system: group of organs that work together for a function
- skeletal system, digestive system, integumentary system
26
What is an organism?
complete individual formed of all organ systems
27
Name the different types of organ systems and their associated organs (use lab study guide)
MURDERS LINC
Integumentary system - Skin
Skeletal system - Femur
Muscular system - Hamstring
Nervous system - Brain, spinal cord
Endocrine system - Pituitary
Cardiovascular system - Heart
Lymphatic system - Thymus, bone marrow
Respiratory system - Lungs
Digestive system - Stomach
Urinary system - Urinary bladder
Reproductive system - Ovaries
28
What is anatomical positioning and the characteristics of the anatomical position?
• Anatomical position: common reference point of the human body
– Standing
– Feet flat
– Arms to side
29
What is supination vs pronation? What is it in anatomical positioning?
Supination: Palms forward (radius and ulna parallel)
Pronation: palms facing backward (radius and ulna cross over)
- In anatomical position, it is supination
30
Know when stating right and left, who’s right and left are we referring to?
The patient's/cadaver
31
Name all the directional terms and what they mean?(18)
Ventral (toward belly) / Dorsal (toward the spine)
Anterior (front) / Posterior (back)
Cephalic (toward head) /Caudal (toward tail)
Rostral - toward nose/forehead (head)
Superior (above) /Inferior (below)
Medial (toward medial plane) /Lateral (away from medial plane)
Intermediate - in between structures
Proximal (toward point of attachment) /Distal (away from point of attachment)
Superficial(External); toward body surface / Deep(Internal); away from body surface
Contralateral (on opposite sides) /Ipsilateral (on the same side)
- What are the differences of these terms when referring to a two-legged animal vs a four-legged animal?
32
What regions are within the axial regions?
head, neck, and trunk
33
What body regions does the cephalic (head) from the axial region consists of?
• Frontal : forehead
• Occipital : posterior head
• Facial: face
– Orbital: eye
– Nasal: nose
– Oral: mouth
– Buccal: cheek
– Mental: chin
– Otic/auricular: ear
34
What other body region the axial region consists of?
– Cervical: neck
– Thoracic: region between neck and abdomen
• Sternal: medial portion of chest
• Pectoral: chest
– Mammary: breast
– Abdominal: region between thorax and pelvis
• Umbilical: navel
– Pelvic: inferiormost axial region
• Pubic: anterior region of the pelvis
• Perineal: inferior region of the pelvic floor
– Dorsum: back
• Vertebral: medial portion of the back/spinal column
• Lumbar: loins / lower portion of the back between ribs and pelvis
•Sacral: medial and inferior portion of the back between hips
35
What body regions does the upper appendicular region from the axial region consists of?
– Upper extremities/appendages: upper limbs
• Acromial: shoulders
• Scapular: shoulder blades
• Axillary: armpits
• Brachial: arm
• Cubital: region between arm and forearm
– Antecubitol: anterior region of elbow
– Olecranal: elbow
• Antebrachial: forearm
• Carpal: wrist
• Manus: hand
– Metacarpal: region between wrist and fingers
» Palmar: palm
» Dorsum of the manus: posterior hand
– Digital region of the manus: fingers
» Pollex: thumb
36
What body regions does the lower appendicular from the axial region consists of?
– Lower extremities/appendages: lower limbs
• Coxal: hips
• Inguinal: groin / medial region of lower limbs attach to pelvis
• Gluteal: buttocks
• Femoral: thigh
• Patellar: knee
• Popliteal: posterior to knee
• Crural: leg
– Sural: posterior leg/calf
– Fibular/peroneal: lateral leg/calf
• Tarsal: ankle
• Pedal/Pes: foot
– Metatarsal: region between ankle and toes
» Dorsum of the pes: dorsal side of the foot
» Plantar: sole of the foot
» Calcaneal: heel
– Digital region of the pes: toes
» Hallux big toe
37
What regions are found in the cephalic (head) region?
• Frontal : forehead
• Occipital : posterior head
• Facial: face
38
What regions are found within the facial region?
– Orbital: eye
– Nasal: nose
– Oral: mouth
– Buccal: cheek
– Mental: chin
– Otic/auricular: ear
39
What regions are found in the thoracic region?
• Sternal: medial portion of chest
• Pectoral: chest
– Mammary: breast
40
What regions are found within the abdominal region?
• Umbilical: navel
41
What regions are found within the pelvic region?
• Pubic: anterior region of the pelvis
• Perineal: inferior region of the pelvic floor
42
What regions are found within the dorsal region?
• Vertebral: medial portion of the back/spinal column
• Lumbar loins / lower portion of the back between ribs and pelvis
• Sacral: medial and inferior portion of the back between hips
43
What regions are found within the appendicular regions?
consist of the upper and lower extremities
44
What regions are part of the upper extremities/appendages?
Upper limbs
45
What regions are found on the cubital region?
– Antecubital: anterior region of elbow
– Olecranal: elbow
46
What are the regions of the manus?
- Metacarpal: region between wrist and fingers
- Digital region of the manus: fingers
47
What are the regions of the metacarpal region?
- Palmar: palm
- Dorsum of the manus: posterior hand
48
What is the pollex?
thumb
49
What regions are part of the lower extremities/appendages?
lower limbs
50
What are the regions of the crural (leg) regions?
– Sural: posterior leg/calf
– Fibular/peroneal: lateral leg/calf
51
What are the regions of the pes (foot)?
– Metatarsal: region between ankle and toes
– Digital region of the pes: toes
52
What are the regions of the metatarsal regions (between ankles and toes)?
» Dorsum of the pes: dorsal side of the foot
» Plantar: sole of the foot
» Calcaneal: heel
53
What is the hallux?
Big toe
54
What are the four abdominal quadrants and its' acronyms? What organs do you find in each quadrant?
– Right upper quadrant (RUQ) - liver, gallbladder, large and small intestines
– Right lower quadrant (RLQ) - large and small intestines, vermiform appendix, urinary bladder
– Left upper quadrant (LUQ) - stomach, spleen, large and small intestines
– Left lower quadrant (LLQ) - large and small intestines, urinary bladder
55
What are the nine abdominal regions?
Which organs do you find in each region?
– Right hypochondriac region: liver
– Epigastric region: liver, stomach
– Left hypochondriac region: stomach, spleen
– Right lumbar region: large and small intestines
– Umbilical region: stomach, large and small intestines
– Left lumbar region: large and small intestines
– Right inguinal/iliac region: large intestines, vermiform appendix
– Pubic / hypogastric region: urinary bladder, large and small intestines
– Left inguinal/iliac region: large and small intestines
56
What is a section? What is a plane?
• Sections: cuts
• Anatomical Planes: imaginary “cut” through body
57
What types of planes/sections are there and their definitions?
– Sagittal plane: separates body right and left
• Midsagittal / median plane: separates body equally right and left
• Parasagittal plane: all other sagittal planes besides midsagittal
– Frontal / coronal plane: separates body anteriorly and posteriorly
– Transverse/horizontal plane: separates body superiorly
and inferiorly
• Transverse section = cross section
– Oblique section: cut at an angle
58
Name the different body cavities and their locations
• Dorsal cavity/Posterior aspect
– Cranial cavity
– Vertebral cavity/spinal canal
• Ventral cavity/Anterior aspect
– Thoracic cavity
• Mediastinum
– Pericardial cavity
• Pleural cavity
– Abdominopelvic cavity
• Abdominal cavity
• Pelvic cavity
59
What cavities are found in the dorsal cavity? What organs are found in these cavities?
– Cranial cavity: formed by cranium and encases
the brain
– Vertebral cavity/ spinal canal: formed by vertebral
column and encases the spinal cord
60
What are serous membranes? What do these serous membranes produce and why?
What type of tissue make up serous membranes?
- Serous membranes/serosa: have two layers
- Produces Serous fluid; fluid secreted by cells of serous membranes serves as a lubricant to decrease friction
- Simple squamous epithelium
61
1) What are the layers and cavity associated with serous membranes?
2) What types of serous membranes are there and where do you find them?
1) Parietal layer (lines the body wall) and Visceral layer (lines the outside surface of organs)
2)
• Pleura: serosa around lungs
• Pericardium: serosa around heart
• Peritoneum: serosa around viscera of the abdominopelvic cavity
62
What cavities are found within the ventral cavity?
Thoracic cavity: cavity superior to diaphragm
63
What is the mediastinum?
Mediastinum: region between lungs
64
What cavities are found in the abdominopelvic cavity? Know some of the organs here.
• Abdominal cavity: superior portion of abdominopelvic cavity above the hip bones
• Pelvic cavity: inferior portion of abdominopelvic cavity below the hip bones
- Organs: stomach
65
What are the different medical imagining techniques and what do they detect?
– X-ray imaging: uses X-rays that penetrate soft organs and absorbed by
denser organs (ie: bones/certain TUMORS/tuberculosis nodules)
• Computed tomography (CT)/ computed axial tomography (CAT): takes X-ray images person’s axis to produce transverse body images and can view soft
tissues as well as bone
• Angiography: images of blood vessels by having a contrast injected into blood vessel
– Positron emission tomography (PET): detects RADIOACTIVE ISOTOPES injected into the body showing areas with increased cellular activity
(ie: tumor growth or areas of the brain being utilized)
– Sonography/ultrasound imaging: uses high frequency sound waves that reflect body tissue to produce an image. Safer for FETAL imaging.
– Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI): detects levels of HYDROGEN in body (mostly water) by using magnetic fields, and shows soft tissue clearer
66
What is extracellular matrix?
fluid, protein fibers, and macromolecules that surround the tissue
67
What types of tissues are there?
Epithelial tissue, Connective tissue, Muscle tissue, Nervous tissue
68
What is an epithelial tissue and its characteristics?
Epithelial tissue: covers or lines surfaces and make up glands
– Characteristics:
• Little to no extracellular matrix: more cells, less space
• Different surfaces:
– Apical surface
– Lateral surface
– Basal surface: bottom/base surface where it lies on a...
– Basement structure: molecular structure made from the epithelium and connective to support and anchor the epithelium and regulate molecules from connective tissue to
epithelium
• Avascular: No blood vessels, so get nutrients & dispose waste from connective tissue underneath or from its apical surface
• Apical surface damage from environment and are regenerated by mitosis from stem cells at the base
• Lumen
69
What does apical, lateral, basal surfaces mean?
– Apical surface: top surface expose to environment or body space
– Lateral surface: side surfaces that is usually connected to other cells by intercellular junctions
– Basal surface: bottom/base surface where it lies on a basement membrane
70
What is lumen?
Lumen: space within hollow organ
71
What are the general functions of epithelial tissue, and what do they mean?
– Protection: protect surfaces from abrasion,
dehydration, damage
– Selectively permeable: regulate materials passing
through surface
– Secretion: some epithelial tissue are specialized to
produce secretion (ie: glands)
– Absorption: bringing in small molecules into cells
– Filtration: moving small molecules through sieve-like
membrane
– Sensation: epithelial tissues contain nerve endings to detect stimuli from the environment
72
What are cell junctions? Name the different types of cell junctions
• Cell junctions: types of connections between the lateral surfaces of epithelial cells
• Types:
– Tight junctions
– Desmosomes
– Gap junctions
73
What are tight junctions, its function, and give an example of where it is located?
• Tight junction/zonula occludens: adhering proteins that bind near the apical side of the cell, encircling the cell
– Creates a seal to prevent substances to pass between the cells, forcing it to go through the cell
– Found in GI tract (stomach, large and small intestines)
74
What are desmosomes, its function, and give an example of where it is located?
What are hemidesmosomes?
• Desmosomes/macula adherens: protein plaques with intermediate and protein filaments that are like a button between adjacent cells (each cell providing half of a desmosome)
– Prevents mechanical stress at one point of the cell
– hemisdesmosomes: half of a desmosome that anchors the cell at the basal side to the basement membrane
– Found in: skin (blisters)
75
What are gap junctions, its function, and give an example of where it is located? What type of protein does it use?
• Gap junctions/nexus: uses CONNEXON TRANSMEMBRANE PROTEINS in a circle to form a pore between cells
– Allows passage of molecules between cells to coordinate cellular activities or communication
– Found in cardiac muscle (heart), respiratory tract (trachea) with cilia
76
What are glands? What types of glands are there and how do they differ?
• Glands: made of mostly epithelial tissue and can be individual cells or organs
– Secretory function
• Hormones, mucin, enzymes, waste products
– Types
• Endocrine glands: ductless glands that secrete hormones INTO the interstitial (tissue) fluid or bloodstream which act on target organs at another location of the body
• Exocrine glands: most contain a duct for secretions to GO TO THE SURFACE locally (ie: sweat, milk, enzymes, saliva)
77
How can you categorize exocrine glands and what types are there? Give examples of these
– Categorized by: Number of cells and Secretion Methods
1) Number of Cells:
– Unicellular exocrine gland may not have duct
• Goblet cell
– Multicellular exocrine gland contains acini (sacs that secrete products into ducts)
– EX: Salivary glands
2) Secretion Methods:
– Merocrine/eccrine glands: secretions packaged in vesicles within cells and then released to environment
• EX: saliva, tears, sweat (from eccrine glands), pancreatic juices, gastric juices
– Apocrine glands: accumulate secretions at apical part of their cytoplasm pinch off and release secretions
• EX: apocrine glands in skin of axillae, groin, anal, and areolarmregions; also mammary glands
– Holocrine glands: cells accumulate secretion and then disintegrates; more viscous
• EX: sebaceous glands in skin
78
Epithelial tissue can be classified by what characteristics? What do each of these mean and their general function?
• Epithelia is classified by the AMOUNT OF LAYERS and SHAPE of the cell
1) Layers:
• Simple epithelium: single layer of epithelial cells
– For absorption, secretion, and filtration
• Psuedostratified epithelium: looks like multiple layers but all the cells are attached to the basement membrane
• Stratified epithelium: 2+ layers of epithelial cells
– To resist stress and protect tissue beneath
2) Shapes: look at the shapes that are in the apical layer
– squamous: thin and flat, nucleus bulge (sunny-side up egg)
– cuboidal: cube shape, as tall as it is wide, nucleus is spherical
– columnar: rectangular shape, taller than wide
• Nucleus usually toward the basal side and oval shaped
– transitional: changes shape depending on the it being stretched
• Flattens when it is stretched
• Rounded or polyhedral when it is relaxed
79
What are the different types of SIMPLE epithelium, their function, and examples of where you will find them?
• Simple squamous epithelium: allow permeability of molecules/gases
– FOUND IN: Capillaries, alveoli, serous membranes, kidney glomeruli
• Simple cuboidal epithelium: absorb/secrete fluids and substances
– FOUND IN:Renal tubules, ducts, follicles of the thyroid
• Simple columnar epithelium: allows molecules to pass through via active transport for absorption/secretion
– FOUND IN: Most of gastrointestinal (GI) tract (microvilli), uterine tubes (ciliated) and bronchioles (ciliated)
– Goblet cells
– Brush border
• Psuedostratified columnar epithelium: for protection and absorption/secretion
– Ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium: Goblet cells secrete mucin and cilia propels mucus
• FOUND IN: Respiratory tract
80
What are goblet cells, brush border, and cilia?
– Goblet cells: secrete mucin which becomes mucus to lubricate and protect the epithelium
– Brush border: because light microscope cannot distinguish each microvillus, looks like a “brush”
- Cilia: hair-like extension made of microtubules
81
What are the different types of STRATIFIED epithelium, their functions, and locations where you find them?
• Stratified squamous epithelium: Protection from friction and pathogens. Stem cells at the basal layer;
– Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium: Surface layers are dead cells with keratin to protect from water loss and making it stronger
• FOUND IN: Skin
– Nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium: living cells without keratin
• FOUND IN: Oral cavity, esophagus, vagina, anus
• Stratified cuboidal epithelium: forming walls of ducts of larger glands, produce hormones, sperm; for protection
– FOUND IN:Sweat glands, ovarian follicles, seminiferous tubules in testes
• Transitional epithelium: Contains binucleated cells: Cells with two nucleus. For protection from urine and allows stretching
– Relax state: surface layer cells are large and round.
– Distended state: surface layer cells are flat, similar to stratified squamous epithelium.
• FOUND IN: Urinary bladder, ureter, proximal urethra
82
What does keratinized vs nonkeratinized mean?
Keratinized: DEAD cells with keratin (has no nuclei)
Nonkeratinized: living cells without keratin (has nuclei)
83
What is unique for transitional epithlium?
Contains binucleated cells (two nucleus)
84
What are the characteristics of connective tissue?
Characteristics:
– Lots of extracellular matrix: few cells, more space
– Extracellular matrix made of ground substance and protein fibers
• Ground substance: varies depending on the type of connective tissue but can be fluid, gel-like, or hard and made by fibroblasts
• protein fibers: strengthen and support the connective tissue and synthesized by fibroblasts
– Embryonic origin: all connective tissue form from mesenchyme or embryonic tissue
85
What are the general functions of connective tissues?
Functions
– Binds organs:
• tendons: bind muscles to bone
• ligaments: bind bone to bone
– Support: bones support the body, cartilage support nose, ears, trachea
– Protection: Bones protect organs, Fat cushion organs
– Immunity: leukocytes protect against pathogens
– Movement: bones and cartilage move the body
– Storage: Fat for energy storage; bone for calcium and phosphorous storage
– Transport: Blood transports gas, nutrients/wastes, hormones, cells
86
What are the different cells found in connective tissue and their general functions?
• Fibroblasts/Fibrocytes: Large flat cells with tapered ends making fibers and ground substance
• Macrophages: Large irregular shaped cells from monocyte. Phagocytize damaged cells or pathogens
• Mast cells: Mobile cells that have granules and secrete heparin to prevent blood clotting and histamine to dilate blood vessels
• Leukocytes/white blood cells (WBCs): protect us from pathogens
• Adipocytes /fat cells: cells filled with triglycerides (for energy storage/insulation) with nucleus pressed on the side of plasma membrane
87
What are the different types of protein fibers found in connective tissue proper and their general functions?
– Collagen fibers: thick, strong and stretch-resistant made of collagen protein (light-stain, thick)
– Elastic fibers: thin, flexible and provides elastic recoil made of elastin (dark-stain, thin)
– Reticular fibers: thinner than elastic fibers and are branched to resist forces and structurally support organs made of collagen subunits (darker stain, branch look)
88
Name the different types of connective tissues
Connective Tissue proper/Fibroconnective tissue
• Loose connective tissues
- Areolar connective tissue
- Reticular connective tissue
- Adipose connective tissue
• Dense connective tissues
- Dense regular connective tissue
- Dense irregular connective tissue
- Elastic connective tissue
Cartilages
• Hyaline cartilage
• Fibrocartilage
• Elastic cartilage
Osseous/Bone Tissue
Blood
89
How do connective tissue proper, cartilage, osseous tissue, and blood differ?
They all have different texture in ground substance
– Connective tissue proper/Fibroconnective tissue: viscous (thick) ground substance
– Cartilage: semi-solid ground substance
– Osseous/Bone Tissue: solid ground substance
– Blood: liquid ground substance
90
How does loose and dense connective tissue differ?
They both have different texture in ground substance, fibers, and cells
• Loose connective tissues: connective tissue with more ground substance and less fibers and cells
• Dense connective tissue: connective tissue with more fibers and cells but less ground substance
91
What are the different types of loose connective tissues? What do they contain, their general function, and locations you can find them?
– Areolar CT: cushion shocks and prevent damage from being moved, highly vascularized to provide nutrients/waste removal for epithelia (support);defense against infection
• (FOUND IN: Under most epithelia/kidney, lungs..., around small nerves and blood vessels)
• Collagen fibers
• Elastic fibers
• Reticular fibers but are not stained
• Fibroblasts
– Reticular CT: forms stroma (framework) of lymphatic organs
• (FOUND IN: Spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, bone marrow)
• Leukocytes
• Reticular fibers
– Adipose CT: Provides cushion, insulation, and an energy storage (triglycerides).
• (FOUND AROUND organs like the kidney, heart, and subcutaneous layer of the skin)
• Adipocytes
• White fat
• Brown fat
92
What are leukocytes, adipocytes? What is the difference between white vs brown fat?
• Leukocytes: white blood cells
• Adipocytes: white fat cells with lipid droplet inside them, nucleus pushed to side
• White fat: for energy storage
• Brown fat: heat production mostly in infants
93
What are the different types of dense connective tissue? What do they contain, their general function, and locations you can find them?
– Dense regular CT: Collagen packed tightly and PARALLEL that resist stress in one direction
• (FOUND IN: Tendons and ligaments)
• Collagen fibers
• Fibroblasts
– Dense irregular CT: Collagen extend IN ALL DIRECTIONS to support and resist stress in many directions
• (FOUND IN: Dermis of skin, around cartilage and bone except at joints, capsule of liver, kidney and spleen)
• Collagen fibers
• Fibroblasts
– Elastic CT: Elastic fibers, fibroblasts, and collagen fibers. Elastic fibers help return to
normal shape
• (FOUND IN: Vocal cords, suspensory ligament of penis, ligaments of spinal column , walls of arteries and bronchial tubes)
• Collagen fibers
• Elastic fibers
• Fibroblasts
94
What is a cartilage, characteristics, and general function of cartilage?
• Cartilage: Gel-like extracellular matrix with chondrocytes residing in lacunae and collagen fibers. Stronger and more resilient than connective tissue proper ; resist compression. But are avascular
– Chondroblasts
– Chondrocytes
– Lacunae
95
What are chondroblasts? What are chondrocytes? What are lacunae?
– Chondroblasts: secrete gel-like matrix
– Chondrocytes: Cartilage cells that are entrapped in lacunae
– Lacunae: Spaces where chondrocytes reside
96
What are the different types of cartilage? What do they contain, their general function, and locations you can find them?
• Hyaline cartilage: Most common and weakest. Scattered chondrocytes within lacunae and collagen are too thin. Provides support by being flexible and resilient.
– (FOUND IN: Forms fetal skeleton and within long bones during growth, nose, trachea, most of larynx, costal cartilage)
• Fibrocartilage: Visible collagen fibers and chondrocytes may arrange in parallel rows. Very durable to resist shock/compression and tension
– (FOUND IN: Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis, menisci of knee joint)
– Collagen fibers
• Elastic cartilage: Many elastic fibers and branched around chondrocytes making it resilient and flexible. Returns to its original shape
– (FOUND IN: Epiglottis, external ear)
– Elastic fibers
97
What is osseous tissue? What is the characteristics of osseous tissue and general function?
• Osseous/Bone Tissue: Very little fluid in matrix that is made of collagen fibers and inorganic components like calcium phosphate salts making it very strong. For support, protection, and storage of calcium and phosphorous
– Looks like a tree trunk cut in half
– Found in: femur, tibia, humeras, sterna, ribs
98
What is blood, characteristics, and general function?
• Blood: Matrix is fluid with formed elements to transport cells, gases, nutrients, wastes
– Erythrocytes/Red blood cells: Biconcave cells that carry oxygen and some carbon dioxide
– Leukocytes/ White blood cells: Cells for immunity, protect against pathogens, various types
– Platelets/Thrombocytes: Pieces of cells for blood clotting
– Plasma: fluid ground substance that contains nutrients, wastes, hormones, and dissolved protein fibers
– FOUND IN: heart, arteries, veins, capillaries
99
What type of membranes are there (4)?
Cutaneous membrane
Mucous membrane/mucosa
Serous membrane/serosa
Synovial membrane
100
What are the characteristics of these (4) membranes, general functions, and locations where you can find these?
• Cutaneous membrane: skin to prevent water loss and prevent pathogens from entering
– Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
– Connective tissue (areolar, dense irregular CT)
• Mucous membrane (mucosa): linings of our digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts for absorption/secretion and protection
– Epithelium (many with goblet cells)
– Lamina propria: areolar CT
– Muscularis mucosae: thin layer of smooth muscles
• Serous membrane (serosa): lines the viscera and walls of cavities to prevent friction
– Simple squamous epithelium
– Areolar CT
– Serous fluid
• Synovial membrane: within some of our joints for lubrication
– Connective tissues (areolar or adipose CT)
– Synovial fluid
101
What is serous fluid and its general function?
Serous fluid: made by serous membrane to prevent friction and for membranes to adhere to one another
102
What is synovial fluid and its general function?
Synovial fluid: made by synovial membranes to lubricate joints
103
What is muscle tissue, the different types and general function and locations where you can find them?
• Muscle Tissue: excitable due to membrane potential. Function is to contract
– Skeletal muscle: voluntary muscles with muscle fibers that are multinucleated and striated
• Foundin:biceps
– Cardiac muscle: involuntary muscles with myocytes/cardiocytes that branch, striated, and are mostly mononucleated
• Intercalated discs:
• (FOUND IN: Heart)
– Smooth muscle: involuntary muscles without striations. Fusiform in shape
• (FOUND IN: GI tract/colon, stomach..., respiratory, urinary tracts, blood vessels, viscera)
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What are intercalated discs?
Intercalated discs: gap junctions that allow electrical conduction from one cell to another quickly
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What is nervous tissue, general function and location where you can find them?
• Nervous Tissue: excitable due to membrane potential (electrical charge difference across
membrane). Function to communicate using electrical and chemical signals
– (FOUND IN: brain, spinal cord, nerves, ganglia)
*neurons: nerve cells that conduct electrical and chemical signals
* neuroglia/glial cells: protect and assist neurons
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What is the integumentary system made of?
- Skin
- Accessory organs: Hair, nails, cutaneous glands
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What are the different types of cutaneous glands, and how do they differ?
• Sudoriferous glands: watery
- Merocrine/eccrine sweat glands
- Apocrine sweat glands
• Sebaceous glands: oily
• OtherIntegumentaryGlands
– Ceruminous glands
– Mammary glands
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What is skin? What are the layers of skin?
• Skin: largest organ in the body
• Layers
– hyperdermis: keratinized stratified squamous epithelium:
- Stratum basale
- Stratum spinosum
- Stratum granulosum
- Stratum lucidum (for thick skin only)
- Stratum corneum
– dermis: connective tissues:
- Papillary layer
- Reticular layer
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What is the hypodermis/subcutaneous layer?
NOT PART OF THE SKIN
- made of:
– Areolar CT
– Adipose CT
• Lamellar/Pacinian corpuscle
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What are the different types of skin (two)and do they differ? Where do you find these skin types?
– Thick skin: thick epidermis with sweat glands but no hair follicles and sebaceous glands.
• FOUND ON palms of hands, soles of feet, and fingers and toes,
– Thin skin: thin epidermis with sebaceous glands, hair follicles and sweat glands
• FOUND ON eyelids
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What are the general function of skin?
Protection
Selectively permeable
Vitamin D synthesis
Sensation
Thermoregulation
Excretion
Nonverbal communication
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What types of (four)cells do you find in the epidermis and their general functions?
– Keratinocytes: makes keratin for durability and waterproofing of skin
– Melanocytes: makes melanin (pigments) which is phagocytized by keratinocytes to protect nucleus from UV radiation, giving color to skin; depends on how much melanin is produced and how quickly it is broken down by keratinocytes
– Leukocytes/Langerhans cells: macrophages protecting against pathogens alerting immune system
– Tactile/Merkel cells: receptors for sense of touch part of tactile disc
113
What are the layers of the epidermis and their general function? Know the order of this
Which layer is found in thick skin only?
• Stratum basale: single layer of cuboidal/short columnar keratinocytes on basement membrane which undergo mitosis. Contains melanocytes and tactile cells
• Stratum spinosum: several layers of keratinocytes with deeper cells mitotically divide. Dendritic cells located here.
• Stratum granulosum: 3-5 layers of flat keratinocytes that begin to die
• Stratum lucidim: a thin, clear layer FOUND ONLY IN THICK SKIN
• Stratum corneum: up to 30 layers of dead keratinocytes. Very thick in thick skin
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What is the dermis and its general characteristics?
Dermis: made of connective tissue that is highly vascularized and contains cutaneous glands, nerve endings, hair follicles, nail roots.
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What layers is part of the dermis and structures within these layers? What tissues are found in each layer?
– Papillary layer: superficial layer of dermis with areolar CT that contains
• Tactile /Meissner’s corpuscle
• Capillaries to provide nutrient and waste disposal for epidermis
– Reticualr layer: deeper and thicker layer of dermis that is made of dense irregular CT with thicker collagen and less ground substance
• Nerves, hair follicles, sebaceous glands, sweat glands, and blood vessels are located
- The CT
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What are tactile/Meissner’s corpuscles?
senses light/fine touch
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What is the hypodermis and its general characterisitcs? Is this a part of the skin? What tissues are found in here? What clinical significance is there for the hypodermis?
• Hypodermis/Subcutaneous/Superficial fascia: NOT part of the skin made of...
– Areolar CT
– Adipose CT for insulation, cushion, and energy storage (triglycerides)
• Injections placed here because of vascular network allowing rapid absorption!!
• Lamellar/Pacinian corpuscle
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What are lamellar/Pacinian corpuscles?
for deep pressure
119
What are the accessory organs for the integumentary system?
Hair
Nails
Cutaneous glands
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What is hair?
• Hair/pilus: keratinized cells that grow from a hair follicle
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Where do you find hair at? Where don’t you find hair at?
– Located in all areas of skin EXCEPT THICK SKIN, lips, eyelids, nipples, umbilicus, certain parts of external genitalia, and distal 1/3 portion of the dorsal part of digits
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What are some general function for hair?
Protection
Heat retention
Facial expression
Sensation
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What are the hair zones and their definitions?
– Hair bulb: base of the hair containing living cells
• Hair papilla: vascularize CT that supplies the bulb
– Hair root: hair within the follicle made of dead epithelial cells
– Hair shaft: hair that is above the skin surface made of dead epithelial cells
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What is the hair papilla?
vascularize CT that supplies the hair bulb
125
What are the hair layers and their definition?
– Hair matrix: contains mitotically dividing cells that deposits keratin and melanin into hair
– Medulla: remnant of the hair matrix that is keratinized but doesn’t appear in thin hair
– Cortex: bulk of the hair that are flattened keratinized cells around medulla
– Cuticle: Coats the hair and made of scaly cells that overlap each other
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What is the hair follicle? What is found in the hair follicle?
• Hair follicle: tube that surrounds the hair root and bulb
– Hair matrix: contains mitotically dividing cells that deposits keratin and melanin into hair
– Root hair plexus/hair follicle receptor: sensory nerve ending around the hair bulb to detect hair movements
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What is the arrector pili/piloerector muscle? What activates it?
• Arrector pilli/piloerector muscle/pilomotor muscle: smooth muscles that attach to the connective tissue root sheath of hair follicle
– Contracts when sympathetic nervous systems is active or cold temperatures causing goose bumps
128
What are nails and its general functions?
• Nails: derivatives of the stratum corneum filled with keratin
• Function: “tools” for digging, grooming, picking at food; protect digits
129
What are the different types of sudoriferous (watery)glands and their general functions?
• Sudoriferous/sweat glands: 2 types
– Merocrine /Eccrine sweat glands
• Produces watery perspiration to help cool the body during increased body temperature and to excrete waste products
– Apocrine sweat glands
• Produces a thicker and milky substance due to fatty acids as pheromones
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How do merocrine/eccrine sweat glands differ from apocrine sweat glands?
Merocrine sweat glands are found on most of the body except in parts of the external genitalia; apocrine sweat glands are located in axillae, groin, anal, and areolar regions
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What are sebaceous glands? What do sebaceous glands produce and what is its general function? Where do you find sebaceous glands?
• Sebaceous glands: oily secretions
• Produces sebum: oily substance to moisturize and condition hair and skin preventing dryness
– Empties in to hair follicles
– located in all places except thick skin
