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Anatomy 001 > Anatomy Unit 4: Chps. 21-25 > Flashcards

Anatomy Unit 4: Chps. 21-25 Flashcards

1
Q

What is the circulatory system and which organ system is it composed of?

A

cardiovascular and lymphatic system

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2
Q

What is the cardiovascular system compose of and its function?

A

heart and blood vessels and blood to transport substances

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3
Q

What is the lymphatic system compose of and its function?

A

vascular system that circulate lymph, and part of our immune system

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4
Q

How much blood does an adult have?

A

4-6 L

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5
Q

What type of tissue is blood?

A

Connective tissue

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6
Q

What is whole blood and what are its components?

A

a component of blood, contains fluid and cellular components
– Plasma
– Formed elements

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7
Q

What are formed elements and what are the different types of formed elements?

A

cells and cell fragments
– Erythrocytes: red blood cells
– Leukocytes: white blood cells
– Platelets (aka thrombocytes): cell fragments

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8
Q

What are the different types of leukocytes? How are they different? Give examples of each.

A

– Granulocytes: WBCs with visible granules
* Neutrophils
* Eosinophil
* Basophil
– Agranulocytes: WBCs with non-staining granules
* Monocytes
* Lymphocytes

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9
Q

After you centrifuge blood what layers do you see?

A

– Hematocrit
– Buffy coat
– Plasma

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10
Q

What is a hematocrit? How and where is it formed? About how much is it within centrifuged blood?

A

Erythrocytes are denser than the other formed elements and will settle at the bottom after centrifugation consisting 37%-52% of total volume

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11
Q

What is the buffy coat? How and where is it formed? About how much is it within centrifuged blood?

A

Leukocytes and platelets settle just above the RBCs and make up <1% of blood

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12
Q

What is plasma? How and where is it formed? About how much is it within centrifuged blood?

A

makes up 47%-63% of blood settling at the top

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13
Q

What is within blood plasma? About how much of the following is there in blood plasma? Give a few examples of each (if applicable).

A

– Water: 92% of plasma
– Plasma: 7% of plasma
– Hormones
– Nutrients
– Electrolytes
– Nitrogenous wastes
– Gases

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14
Q

Name the different types of plasma proteins, where it is made, its relative abundance, and their functions

A
  • Albumin: produced by liver and is the most abundant (58%) but smallest protein.
    – Transport certain solutes like hormones, ions, and lipids in blood
    – Buffer pH
    – Maintain viscosity (thickness of blood) and osmolarity (concentration of blood)
    • Affects blood volume, pressure and flow
  • Globulins: 37% of proteins produced by B lymphocytes and varies in weight; α (alpha), β (beta), γ (gamma)
    – α (alpha), β (beta) Globulins: Transport certain solutes like hormones, ions, and lipids in blood
    – γ (gamma): Immunity
  • Fibrinogen: 4% of proteins produced by liver and is the precursor to fibrin which forms…
    – Blood clots
  • Regulatory proteins: <1% of proteins that are transported in blood
    – Enzymes
    – Hormones
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15
Q

What is the functions for erythrocytes?

A

– Transport oxygen from lungs to tissues
– Transport carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs

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16
Q

What is the structure of erythrocytes? What organelles do erythrocytes lack? Why is this helpful?

A

– Discoidal cell and shaped as biconcave disc
* No nucleus and mitochondria causing biconcavity and prevents use of the oxygen it carries
– Because there is no mitochondria, it undergoes anaerobic fermentation for energy to prevent use of oxygen for cellular respiration

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17
Q

What is the function of hemoglobin and about how many hemoglobin are there for each erythrocyte (not precise number)?

A

– Protein that carries oxygen and carbon dioxide transport
– 280 million / cell

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18
Q

How many globins proteins in each hemogloblin? What important component binds to oxygen in hemoglobin and which ion does this? How much CO2 is bound to hemoglobin?

A

– 4 Globin proteins are in each hemoglobin (two α and two β chains)
– Heme group: ferrous ion (Fe2+) that binds to oxygen
– 5% of CO2 is bound to hemoglobin

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19
Q

What is erythropoiesis? How does it occur and from what organ causes this?

A
  • Erythropoiesis: erythrocyte production within (red) bone marrow
    – Erythropoietin (EPO) hormone from kidney to increase production and maturation of erythrocytes
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20
Q

What are some erythrocyte disorders?

A

– Anemia
– Sickle-cell disease

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21
Q

What is anemia? What are some causes of anemia? What are some of the symptoms of anemia?

A
  • Anemia: deficiency of RBC or hemoglobin
    – Causes:
  • Decrease erythropoiesis or hemoglobin synthesis
    ~ Kidney failure = no erythropoietin
  • Hemorrhagic anemia: due to bleeding
  • Hemolytic anemia: due to RBC hemolysis
    – Symptoms
  • Hypoxia: decreased oxygen to tissues causing lethargy
    and shortness of breath. Pallid skin and necrosis
  • Decrease blood osmolarity: causing osmosis of water from blood to tissues = edema
  • Decrease blood viscosity: heart beats faster and decrease blood pressure
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22
Q

What is hemorrhagic anemia, hemolytic anemia, hypoxia?

A
  • Hemorrhagic anemia: due to bleeding
  • Hemolytic anemia: due to RBC hemolysis
  • Hypoxia: decreased oxygen to tissues causing lethargy
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23
Q

What is sickle-cell disease? Who tends to have it and why?

A

Sickle-cell disease: recessive allele causing hemoglobin defect usually African descent (locations w/ Malaria)

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24
Q

What is malaria? How does having sickle-cell disease help in some situations?

A

Malaria: parasites that feed on hemoglobin
– But sickle-cells hemoglobin are not affected so those who are heterozygous of this are resistant to malaria

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25
Q

What are leukocytes and how do they get to sites of infection?

A

Leukocytes: white blood cells (WBCs) fights infections and diseases by going to sites of infections through diapedesis

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26
Q

What is diapedesis?

A

Diapedesis: cells squeeze between endothelial cells of blood vessels to tissues

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27
Q

What are the functions of each leukocytes, what do they look like, the relative abundance of each?

A

– Granulocytes
* Neutrophils: 50% -70% of leukocytes
~ 2-6 lobed nucleus
~ Granules are lightly stained red/purple
~ Responds to bacterial infection by secreting lysozyme
* Eosinophil: 1%-4% of leukocytes
~ Bi-lobed nucleus
~ Granules are brightly red/orange colored
~ Responds to allergies, parasitic infections, antigen-Ab complex
~ Lots in mucous membrane of respiratory, digestive, lower urinary tracts
* Basophil: 0.5%-1% of leukocytes
~ Coarse, dark violet granules hiding the nucleus (usually S or U-shaped)
~ Secretes histamine and heparin during inflammation and allergic reactions
* Secretes histamine (vasodilator) so blood can get to injured tissue (blood clotting and neutrophils can access to area)
* Secretes heparin (anticoagulant) to temporarily prevent blood clotting so neutrophils and eosinophils can access site
– Agranulocytes
* Monocytes: 2%-8%
~ Largest leukocytes
~ Large nucleus and usually kidney or horseshoe-shaped
~ Responds to viral infections and inflammation by leaving bloodstream and becoming macrophages to phagocytize debris, bacteria, and dead cells
* Lymphocytes: 20%-40 %
~ Smallest leukocytes around the same size as RBCs when non-activated
~ Nucleus is round, oval, or slightly dimpled and fills almost entire cell with halo of cytoplasm
~ Depending on subclass has different immune functions such as attacking foreign, abnormal, or infected cells, produce antibodies.
* T-cell: mature in thymus and attack foreign cells directly
* B-cell: mature in bone marrow which becomes plasma cells and produce antibodies to be marked for macrophages to destroy them

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28
Q

What are the differences between T cell vs B cells?

A
  • T-cell: mature in thymus and attack foreign cells directly
  • B-cell: mature in bone marrow which becomes plasma cells and produce antibodies to be marked for macrophages to destroy them
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29
Q

How are leukocytes made?

A

red bone marrow containing granules

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30
Q

How are platelets produced?

A

fragments of megakaryocytes (bone marrow cells)

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31
Q

Where are blood cells produced?

A

Red bone marrow
– Hemopoiesis: production of all blood cells

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32
Q

Where is red bone marrow located in children vs adults?

A
  • Children: red bone marrow located in spongy bone and medullary cavity of bones
  • Adults: red bone marrow located at axial skeleton and proximal epiphyses of humerus and femur
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33
Q

What do the locations that used to produce blood become?

A

Red bone marrow turns into fat (yellow bone marrow)

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34
Q

What are the two circulations of the cardiovascular system and which side of the heart is for which circulation?

A
  • Cardiovascular System: heart, blood vessels, and blood
    – Pulmonary circulation: carries blood from right side of the heart to lungs and back to oxygenate blood
    – Systemic circulation: carries blood from left side of the heart to organs and back
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35
Q

What are the layers around the heart and its function and tissue it is made of?

A

– Fibrous pericardium: dense irregular CT that surrounds the heart and attaches to diaphragm and great vessels
– Serous Pericardium: 2 layers of serous membrane that surround the heart (made of simple squamous epithelium and connective tissue)
* Parietal pericardium: serous membrane that lines the fibrous pericardium
➢ Pericardial cavity: space between the two layers
* Visceral pericardium/epicardium: serous membrane that is on the outer surface of the heart

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36
Q

What is the pericardial cavity? And what type of fluid is in this space and its function?

A

space between the parietal pericardium and the visceral pericardium
– pericardial fluid: serous fluid from serous pericardium to lubricate between the two membranes to reduce friction

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37
Q

What are the great vessels (4), where do they come from/go to?

A
  • Great vessels: large blood vessels that enter/exit heart
    – Inferior and superior venae cavae: entering the R atrium
    – Pulmonary trunk: from R ventricle through pulmonary semilunar valve
    – Pulmonary veins: entering the L atrium
    – Aorta: from the L ventricle through aortic semilunar valve
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38
Q

Where is the heart located at?

A

Heart is within the thoracic cavity in the mediastinum (area between the lungs)

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39
Q

What is the superior part of the heart known as? How about the inferior part of the heart?

A
  • Base: superior part of the heart where
    great vessels are attached
  • Apex: inferior end of the heart
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40
Q

What is the size of the heart?

A

about your fist size

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41
Q

What are the layers of the heart wall and their tissues?

A

– Epicardium/visceral pericardium: serous membrane on the outermost layer of heart
– Myocardium: thickest layer made of cardiac muscles
– Endocardium: inner layer of the heart chambers, made of simple squamous epithelium over areolar connective tissue; continuous with the endothelium of blood vessels

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42
Q

What are the four chambers of the heart and their functions? What structures do you have within each chamber and their functions?

A

– R/L Atria: superior chambers that receives blood from body/lungs to the heart
* R/L Auricle: anterior earlike extension of atria that increase volume of the atria
* Interatrial septum: separates the R vs L atria
– R/L Ventricle: inferior chambers that
pumps blood away from the heart
* Trabeculae carnae: internal ridges of muscles within the ventricles
* Interventricular septum: separates the R vs L ventricles

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43
Q

What are the four coronary chambers called and their functions?

A

– Right atrium: receives blood from the body
– Right ventricle: pumps blood to the lungs
– Left atrium: receives blood from the lungs
– Left ventricle: pumps blood to the body to the systemic circuit

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44
Q

What structure do you find in the right atrium?

A

Fossa ovalis: depression in right atrium which was the former location of fetal foramen ovale when blood goes from right atrium to left atrium in fetus

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45
Q

How are the right vs left ventricles different and why?

A

– Right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs
– Left ventricle pumps blood to the body’s systemic circuit
* Thicker myocardium than the right ventricle to have enough strength to pump to the entire body

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46
Q

What are the function of the coronary valves?

A

to keep blood flowing one way

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47
Q

What are cusps?

A

flaps that make up the valves

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48
Q

What are the coronary valves called and where are they found?

A

– Atrioventricular valves: between the atria and ventricles
– Semilunar valves: between the ventricles and great vessels

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49
Q

What structures do you find associated with the atrioventricular valves and their functions?

A

– Chordae tendineae: collagen fibers that connects cusps to papillary muscles
– Papillary muscles: contract when ventricles contract to prevent valves from flipping inside out and ensuring one- way flow of blood

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50
Q

What are the 4 heart valves called and where are they located at?

A
  • Right atrioventicular (AV)/tricuspid valve: 3 cusps between the right atrium and right ventricle
  • Pulmonary semilunar valve: 3 cusps that occurs between the right ventricle and pulmonary trunk
  • Left atrioventicular (AV)/bicuspid/mitral valve: 2 cusps between the left atrium and left ventricle
  • Aortic semilunar valve: 3 cusps occurs between the left ventricle and aorta
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51
Q

How many cusps are there in each heart valve?

A
  • Right atrioventicular (AV)/tricuspid valve: 3 cusps
  • Pulmonary semilunar valve: 3 cusps
  • Left atrioventicular (AV)/bicuspid/mitral valve: 2 cusps
  • Aortic semilunar valve: 3 cusps
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52
Q

What is the term to listen to the sounds of the body?

A

Auscultation: listening to sounds of the body

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53
Q

What is lub-dub? Which valves closes for which sound?

A

– First heart sound (S1): “lub”, turbulence in bloodstream as AV valves closes and tensing of chordae tendineae
– Second heart sound (S2): “dub”, turbulence in bloodstream as semilunar valves closes

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54
Q

What is a murmur?

A

abnormal heart sound by abnormal blood flow of the heart

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55
Q

What is systole vs diastole? What does it typically refer to?

A

– Systole: contraction
– Diastole: relaxation
~ Typically refers to the ventricles

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56
Q

Name all the structures as blood flows to and out of the heart.

A
  • Systemic circuit
    – Blood arrives from the body to the heart by the
    – Superior vena cava: blood from the upper body and…
    – Inferior vena cava: blood from the lower body which then goes to…
    – Right atrium and through…
    ➢ Right atrioventricular valve to…
  • Pulmonary circuit
    – Right ventricle where blood is pumped through… ➢ Pulmonary semilunar valve to…
    – Pulmonary trunk which bifurcates into…
    – R/L Pulmonary arteries to become…
    – Pulmonary arterioles to become…
    – Pulmonary capillaries to get oxygenated and release carbon dioxide and then goes to the
    – Pulmonary venules which become…
    – R/L Pulmonary veins to…
    – Left atrium and through…
    ➢ Left atrioventricular valve to…
  • Systemic circuit
    – Left ventricle where blood is pumped through… ➢ Aortic semilunar valve to…
    – Ascending aorta to the…
    – Aortic arch to the rest of the body
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57
Q

Which parts is the systemic circuit which is the pulmonary circuit?

A
  • Systemic circuit
    – Blood arrives from the body to the heart by the
    – Superior vena cava: blood from the upper body and…
    – Inferior vena cava: blood from the lower body which then goes to…
    – Right atrium and through…
    ➢ Right atrioventricular valve to…
  • Pulmonary circuit
    – Right ventricle where blood is pumped through… ➢ Pulmonary semilunar valve to…
    – Pulmonary trunk which bifurcates into…
    – R/L Pulmonary arteries to become…
    – Pulmonary arterioles to become…
    – Pulmonary capillaries to get oxygenated and release carbon dioxide and then goes to the
    – Pulmonary venules which become…
    – R/L Pulmonary veins to…
    – Left atrium and through…
    ➢ Left atrioventricular valve to…
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58
Q

Which parts have oxygenated blood and what parts have “deoxygenated” blood?

A
  • Deoxygenated blood:
    – R/L pulmonary arteries, pulmonary arterioles
    ➢ Pulmonary capillaries: where gas exchange occurs to get oxygenated and release CO2 and then goes to…
  • Oxygenated blood:
    – pulmonary venules, pulmonary veins
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59
Q

What is coronary circulation? What are cardiocytes?

A
  • Coronary Circulation: allows oxygen/nutrients in blood to be delivered to the cardiocytes and delivers carbon dioxide/wastes from cardiocytes to blood
  • Cardiocytes: cardiac muscles
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60
Q

What is myocardial infarction (MI)?

A

heart attack when interruption of blood supply to the myocardium which can cause necrosis (tissue death)

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61
Q

What are anastomoses and why is it important?

A

alternate routes to provide blood to tissue in case one is blocked

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62
Q

What are the vessels for coronary circulation and their functions?

A

Ascending aorta’s base leads to…
– Left coronary artery (LCA): which travels along the coronary sulcus and branches off to the…
* Anterior interventicular artery /left anterior descending (LAD) branch: which travels along the anterior interventricular sulcus which then joins to the posterior interventricular artery; supplies blood to ventricles and anterior 2/3 of interventricular septum
* Circumflex artery: which travels along the coronary sulcus; supplies blood to the left atrium and posterior wall of left ventricle and becomes the…
– Right coronary artery (RCA): which travels along the coronary sulcus; supplying blood to right atrium and sinoatrial (SA) node and atrioventricular (AV) node becomes…
* Right marginal artery: which supplies the lateral right atrium and ventricle
* Posterior interverticular artery/posterior descending artery: travels along the posterior interventricular sulcus and supplies posterior ventricles and interventricular septum and joins the anterior interventricular artery

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63
Q

Coronary arteries will become what type of blood vessels and that will become what type of blood vessels?

A

Coronary arterioles –> capillaries

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64
Q

What will those coronary capillaries become, which will then become which cardiac veins and their functions?

A

Coronary capillaries to coronary venules to…
* Great cardiac vein: travels along anterior interventricular sulcus; collects blood from anterior heart and empties into the coronary sinus
* Posterior interventricular vein/middle cardiac vein: travels along the posterior interventricular sulcus; collects blood from posterior heart and drains into coronary sinus
* Small cardiac vein: travels along the coronary sulcus between the right atrium and right ventricle and empties into the coronary sinus
* Coronary sinus: located on the posterior heart in the coronary sulcus and collects blood from all these veins and empties into…
* Right atrium

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65
Q

What are some (6) properties of cardiocytes and their functions?

A

– Auto-rhythmic: contracts regularly ~75 beats per minute (bpm) (without nervous system innervating it)
– Striated
– Involuntary
– Single or two, centrally located nucleus
– Branched: to connect to multiple cardiocytes so contracts as one unit
– Intercalated discs has these properties:
* Mechanical junctions
* Gap junctions

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66
Q

What is the cardiac conduction system?

A

internal pacemaker and nerve-like conduction pathway within the myocardium to generate rhythmic beating of the heart

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67
Q

What are the different structures that make up the cardiac conduction system?

A

– Sinoatrial (SA) node/pacemaker: modified cardiocytes in right atrium under epidcardium near superior vena cava; initiates heartbeat and heart rate
– Internodal pathway: Action potential of cardiocytes spreads across atria and go to…
– Atrioventricular (AV) node: at interatrial septum near right AV valve and surrounded with fibrous skeleton, electric signals then travels to…
– Atrioventicular (AV) bundle/ Bundle of His: found within the interventricular septum and branches into the…
– R/L bundle branches: travels within the interventricular septum and become…
– Purkinje fibers : travels from the apex and up to the ventricles stimulating cardiocytes to contract

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68
Q

What are the nerve supply to the heart?

A
  • Sympathetic nervous system: stimulate the heart rate (up to 230 bpm)
    – Preganglionic nerve: From spinal cord to sympathetic chain ganglion
    – Postganglionic nerve: from sympathetic chain ganglion through cardiac plexus to the heart
    – Terminating at
  • SA and AV node: increase heart rate and stroke volume
  • Aorta, pulmonary trunk and coronary arteries: vasodilation
  • Parasympathetic nervous system: decreases heart rate (to 20 bpm or stop for a couple seconds)
    – Preganglionic nerve: Vagus nerve (CN X) through cardiac plexus and synapse at…
    – Postganglionic nerve: at the epicardial surface and heart wall
    – Terminating at
  • SA node: mostly from right CN X
  • AV node: mostly from left CN X
  • Causes decrease heart rate only
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69
Q

What are some of the sensory nerves from the heart for?

A

Sensory nerves from heart to CNS for cardiovascular reflexes and pain signals of the heart

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70
Q

Where is the cardiac center located at?

A

Cardiac center located at the medulla oblongata

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71
Q

What are some of the fetal structures and what do they become as adults? What are their functions?

A

– Foramen ovale: opening between the atria, since the lungs are not functioning, blood is by passed from the lungs to L atrium
* When we are born, lungs causes the closing of foramen ovale forming fossa ovalis
– Ductus arteriosus: blood that enters right ventricle will go through pulmonary trunk and then to the aorta through this structure bypassing lungs since it is not functioning
* When we are born, ductus arteriosus closes becoming the fibrous ligamentum arteriosum

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72
Q

What is the differences between arteries, veins and capillaries? What are their functions?

A
  • Arteries: efferent vessels of the cardiovascular system (carrying blood AWAY from the heart)
  • Veins: afferent vessels of the cardiovascular system (carrying blood TOWARD the heart)
  • Capillaries: microscopic, thin-walled vessels that connects arteries and veins for exchanging material
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73
Q

What are the blood vessel layers?

A

– Tunica interna
– Tunica media
– Tunica externa

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74
Q

What are the tissues that make up each layer of the blood vessels and their functions?

A

– Tunica interna:
* Endothelium: Simple squamous epithelium
* Basement membrane
* Areolar connective tissue
* Elastic fibers (may occur within arteries)
– Tunica media:
* Smooth muscle: to control diameter in vessels; larger in arteries than veins
* Elastic fibers (may occur within arteries)
– Tunica externa:
* Areolar connective tissue
* Elastic and collagen fibers (more in arteries than veins)

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75
Q

What is endothelium?

A

Simple squamous epithelium

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76
Q

Which blood vessels tend to have elastic fibers?

A

Mostly arteries

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77
Q

What is vasoconstriction vs vasodilation? How does that affect blood pressure?

A

– Vasoconstriction: narrowing of blood vessel lumen diameter; causing high BP
– Vasodilation: opening of blood vessel lumen diameter; reducing high BP

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78
Q

What are the different types of blood vessels in the body?

A

– Arteries
* Elastic arteries / Conducting arteries
* Muscular arteries / Distributing arteries
* Arterioles
– Capillaries
* Continuous capillaries
* Fenestrated capillaries
* Sinusoids
– Veins
* Postcapillary venules
* Medium veins
* Venous sinuses
* Large Veins

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79
Q

What are elastic arteries? Name some examples. What are the function of elastic arteries?

A
  • Elastic-/conducting/large arteries: largest arteries
    – Ie: aorta, common carotid, subclavian, common iliac arteries, and pulmonary trunk and arteries
    – Functions:
  • Elastic arteries expand during ventricular systole (contraction) preventing damaging smaller blood vessels
  • Recoils during diastole (relaxation) due to the elastic fibers propelling the blood forwards and preventing drop in blood pressure between systoles
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80
Q

What are muscular arteries? Name some examples. What are the function of muscular arteries?

A
  • Muscular/distributing/medium arteries: distribute blood to organs
    – Ie: most of the named bv’s: brachial, femoral, renal, splenic, anterior tibial, coronary, inferior mesenteric arteries
    – Thicker tunica media because of smooth muscles allowing for vasoconstriction/vasodilation
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81
Q

What are arterioles?

A
  • Arteriole: smallest but most arteries with few layers of smooth muscles
    – Smooth muscle with little elastic tissue
    – Metarteriole: short vessels within mesenteries (serous membranes of digestive system) that links arterioles to capillaries with…
  • Precapillary sphincters: smooth muscles that regulates blood flow through capillaries instead of tunica media
82
Q

What are metarterioles and its function?

A

Metarteriole: short vessels within mesenteries (serous membranes of digestive system) that links arterioles to capillaries with precapillary sphincters

83
Q

What are precapillary sphincters and its function?

A

Precapillary sphincters: smooth muscles that regulates blood flow through capillaries instead of tunica media

84
Q

What are capillaries and its function? “Functional unit” of cardiovascular system?

A
  • Capillaries/exchange vessels: functional unit of cardiovascular system
    – “functional unit” = smallest structure for function of organ system
85
Q

What are the structures of capillaries? Why is this significant?

A
  • Endothelium: simple squamous epithelium
  • Basement membrane: separates endothelium from surrounding connective tissues
  • (areolar CT)
    ~ it only has a tunica interna/intima
86
Q

What are the different types of capillaries and how are they different? Which is the most common? What are
the functions of each? Name examples of each

A

1) Continuous capillaries: most common
– Structure:
* Endothelial cells held together by tight junctions with
* Intercellular clefts: spaces that allows small solutes to pass through but block out larger molecules like plasma proteins and platelets
~ Blood-brain barrier lacks intercellular clefts
– Function:
* Chemical and gas exchange
– Example: in most tissues, muscle, skin, thymus, lungs, and CNS
2) Fenestrated capillaries:
– Structure:
* Endothelial cells with filtration pores/fenestrations
– Function:
* Allows rapid passage of small molecules and still retain
plasma proteins and particles in blood
– Examples:
* Kidneys, endocrine glands, small intestine, choroid plexus in brain
3) Sinusoids/discontinuous capillaries:
– Structure:
* Twisted passageways
* Endothelial cells are separated with wide gaps and no basement membrane
– Function:
* Allows protein and blood cells to pass through
* How albumin, clotting factors, blood cells enter blood
– Examples: Liver, bone marrow, and lymphatic organs, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands and pituitary gland

87
Q

What are some of the structures of continuous capillaries and what do they do?

A

– Structure
* Tight junctions: Holds endothelial cells together with…
* Intercellular clefts: spaces that allows small solutes to pass through but block out larger molecules like plasma proteins and platelets
– Function
* Chemical and gas exchange

88
Q

What are some features on fenestrated capillaries and what do they do?

A

– Structure
* Endothelial cells with FILTRATION PORES/ fenestrations
– Function
* Allows rapid passage of small molecules and still retain bigger molecules (plasma proteins and particles) in blood

89
Q

What are some features on sinusoids and what do they do?

A

– Structure
* Twisted passageways
* Endothelial cells are separated with wide gaps and no basement membrane
– Function
* Allows protein and blood cells to pass through
* How albumin, clotting factors, blood cells enter blood

90
Q

What are capillary beds?

A

contains lots of capillaries from a single metarteriole to a postcapillary venule

91
Q

What happens when precapillary sphincters open or close?

A

– Precapillary sphincters open: INCREASE perfusion (blood flow) of blood with tissue
– Precapillary sphincters closed: DECREASE perfusion of blood with tissue and by passing capillary beds and goes to thoroughfare channel
* Closed when not needed to maintain blood pressure (ie: during rest precapillary sphincters of skeletal muscles are closed vs during exercise precapillary sphincters of skin and intestines are closed)

92
Q

What is a thoroughfare channel?

A

leads directly into postcapillary venule

93
Q

What are 4 differences between veins and arteries?

A

Veins:
– Drain capillaries and return blood to the heart
– Thin-walled due to low blood pressure
– Lacks elasticity: expands easily to accommodate increase BV as a reservoir
– Tunica externa is thicker than tunica media
– Skeletal muscle pump

Arteries:
– Carries blood away from the heart
– Thick-walled due to high blood pressure
– Has more elasticity
– Tunica media is thicker than tunic

94
Q

What is the skeletal muscle pump and how does it function?

A

Requires skeletal muscles to help push blood towards heart
against gravity

95
Q

What are venous valves and where do you NOT find them?

A

Because of low bp, prevents backflow of blood due to gravity
– NOT found in abdominal and thoracic cavities and few in head and neck

96
Q

What are venules? What do they end up forming?

A
  • Postcapillary venules: smallest veins and receives blood from capillaries
    – No muscle
    – More porous than capillaries allowing more
    exchange
  • Smaller venules merge to form larger venules
97
Q

What are the different types of veins? How are they different? Examples of these?

A
  • Medium veins:
    – Thin internal elastic lamina
    – Venous valves: prevent backflow by gravity
    – Examples: most of the veins we are learning
  • Venous sinuses:
    – Thin walls and large lumens
    – No smooth muscles
    – Examples: coronary sinus, dural sinuses
  • Large veins:
    – Smooth muscles in all three layers
    – Examples: venae cavae, pulmonary veins, internal jugular, renal veins
98
Q

What is the common route of blood circulation?

A

Heart > arteries > arterioles > capillaries > venules > veins > heart

99
Q

What are portal systems? Examples?

A

Heart > arteries > arterioles > capillary > portal vein > capillary > venules >veins > heart
~ portal vein to transport blood from one capillary to another capillary
– Examples: liver, kidneys, anterior pituitary gland

100
Q

What are anastomosis? Examples?

A
  • Anastomoses: two blood vessels merge which may give alternative routes to/from same tissues
    – Venous anastomoses: vein > vein (veins are more superficial)
  • Alternative routes for draining blood from organ
  • Most anastomoses
    – Arterial anastomoses: providing collateral routes of blood to tissue
  • Common around joints when movement may compress artery allow alternate pathway
  • Heart
  • Brain
101
Q

Name all the structures that blood goes through in the pulmonary circuit

A
  • Pulmonary circuit
    – Right ventricle where DEOXYGENATED BLOOD is pumped through…
    ➢ Pulmonary semilunar valve to…
    – Pulmonary trunk which bifurcates into…
    – R/L Pulmonary arteries …
    – Pulmonary arterioles to become…
    – Pulmonary capillaries for gas exchange (BLOOD IS OXYGENATED and release carbon dioxide)
    – Pulmonary venules which become…
    – R/L Pulmonary veins to…
    – Left atrium and through…
    ➢ Left atrioventricular valve to…
  • Systemic circuit (… left ventricle)
102
Q

Name all the arteries and veins and how they connect to each other and what they supply to or get blood from.

A
103
Q

Trace the blood flow through these structures:
Systemic Circuit Blood Vessels (skipping arterioles/capillaries/venules but you should still know it)

A

Aorta
– Ascending aorta
➢ R/L coronary arteries
– Aortic arch
➢ Brachiocephalic trunk
* R common carotid artery
~ R internal carotid artery
~ R external carotid artery
* R subclavian artery
~ R vertebral artery
Basilar artery
R axillary artery
R brachial artery
R ulnar artery
R radial artery

L common carotid arteries
L internal carotid arteries
R/L anterior cerebral arteries
Anterior communicating artery
R/L middle cerebral arteries
L external carotid arteries

L subclavian arteries
L vertebral arteries
Basilar artery
R/L Posterior cerebral arteries
R/L Posterior communicating arteries
L axillary artery
L brachial artery
L ulnar artery
L radial artery

Descending aorta/Thoracic aorta
Intercostal arteries

Abdominal aorta
Celiac trunk
Left gastric artery
Splenic artery
Common hepatic artery
Hepatic artery proper
Hepatic arteries

Superior mesenteric artery
R/L renal arteries
R/L gonadal (testicular/ovarian) arteries
Inferior mesentery artery

R/L common iliac artery
R/L internal iliac artery
R/L external iliac artery
R/L femoral artery
R/L popliteal artery
R/L anterior tibial artery
Dorsalis pedis artery
R/L posterior tibial artery
R/L fibular artery / Peroneal artery

104
Q

Trace the blood flow through these structures:
Head - Systemic Venous System (skipping arterioles/capillaries/venules but you should still know it)

  1. Dural sinuses
  2. R/L Vertebral veins
  3. R/L External jugular veins (superficial)
A

Dural sinuses
Superior sagittal sinus
R/L Internal jugular veins
R/L Brachiocephalic veins
Superior vena cava

R/L Vertebral veins
R/L Subclavian veins
R/L Brachiocephalic veins
Superior vena cava

R/L External jugular veins (superficial)
R/L Subclavian veins
R/L Brachiocephalic veins
Superior vena cava

105
Q

Trace the blood flow through these structures:
Upper limb - Systemic Venous System (skipping arterioles/capillaries/venules but you should still know it)

  1. R/L Radial veins
  2. R/L Ulnar veins
  3. R/L Cephalic vein
  4. R/L Basilic veins
A

R/L Radial veins
R/L Brachial veins
R/L Axillary veins
R/L Subclavian veins
R/L Brachiocephalic veins
Superior vena cava

R/L Ulnar veins
R/L Brachial veins
R/L Axillary veins
R/L Subclavian veins
R/L Brachiocephalic veins

R/L Cephalic vein (connected by median cubital vein to basilic vein) (superficial)
R/L Subclavian vein
R/L Brachiocephalic vein
Superior vena cava

R/L Basilic veins (connected by median cubital vein to cephalic vein) (superficial)
R/L Axillary veins
R/L Subclavian veins
R/L Brachiocephalic veins
Superior vena cava

106
Q

Trace the blood flow through these structures:
Thoracic region - Systemic Venous System (skipping arterioles/capillaries/venules but you should still know it)

A

Azygos vein
Superior vena cava

107
Q

Trace the blood flow through these structures:
Abdominopelvic region - Systemic Venous System (skipping arterioles/capillaries/venules but you should still know it)

  1. Azygos vein
  2. R Gonadal (ovarian/testicular) vein
  3. R/L Renal veins
  4. L Gonadal (ovarian/testicular) vein
A

Azygos vein
Superior vena cava

R Gonadal (ovarian/testicular) vein
IVC

R/L Renal veins
IVC

L Gonadal (ovarian/testicular) vein
L renal vein
IVC

108
Q

Trace the blood flow through these structures:
Hepatic portal circulation - Systemic Venous System (skipping arterioles/capillaries/venules but you should still know it)

A

Inferior mesenteric vein
Splenic vein
Superior mesenteric vein
R/L gastric veins
Hepatic Portal vein
Hepatic portal venules
Hepatic sinusoids
Central veins
Hepatic veins
Inferior vena cava

109
Q

Trace the blood flow through these structures:
Lower limb - Systemic Venous System (skipping arterioles/capillaries/venules but you should still know it)

1) R/L Great saphenous veins (superficial)
2) R/L Posterior tibial veins
3) R/L Femoral veins

A

1) R/L Great saphenous veins (superficial)
R/L Femoral veins
R/L External iliac veins
R/L Common iliac veins
IVC

2) R/L Posterior tibial veins
R/L Popliteal veins
R/L Femoral veins
R/L External iliac veins
R/L Common iliac veins
IVC

3) R/L Femoral veins
R/L External iliac veins
R/L Common iliac vein
IVC

110
Q

What is the cerebral arterial circle and why is it important?

A

arterial anastomoses; to end up providing blood for the brain

111
Q

What are the arteries that make up the cerebral arterial circle?

A

– R/L internal carotid arteries: through carotid canal supplies blood to orbits and cerebrum
* Anterior cerebral artery: blood to frontal and parietal lobes of the brain
~ Anterior communicating artery (1): anastomosis between R/L anterior cerebral arteries

– R/L Posterior cerebral arteries: supplies inferior and medial regions of temporal and occipital lobes, thalamus, and midbrain
» R/L Posterior communicating arteries: anastomoses between the R/L posterior cerebral and internal carotid arteries

112
Q

Arteries are located where compare to many veins?

A

Arteries are deep compare to superficial veins

113
Q

How many deep veins run next to arteries usually?

A

Deep veins run along arteries and at times run in pairs

114
Q

Veins tend to have a lot of what?

A

Anastomoses

115
Q

What is the falx cerebri?

A

dura mater that separates the two cerebral hemispheres

116
Q

What is the azygos system?

A

main venous drainage of THORACIC organs

117
Q

What is the hepatic portal system? How is it a portal system?

A

– Hepatic portal system: receives blood from abdominal digestive tract, pancreas, gallbladder, and spleen (rich in nutrients); passes through CAPILLARY BED of digestive tract with HEPATIC SINUSOIDS to clean bacteria and toxins

118
Q

What is a placenta and its function?

A

Placenta: attached to uterine wall and to the fetus via umbilical cord
– Source of oxygen, nutrients, and waste disposal for fetus

119
Q

What things can pass through the placenta?

A

– Alcohol, drugs, nicotine, may also pass through placenta

120
Q

How are things able to pass through the placenta?

A

Chorionic villi of the fetus form around maternal placenta sinus which contains the mother’s blood allowing diffusion of nutrients/wastes/gas

121
Q

How many umbilical arteries are there compare to umbilical veins? What do they carry?

A
  • Umbilical cord:
    – Umbilical arteries: (2) blood away from fetal heart to chorionic villi where it eliminates wastes and carbon dioxide to placental sinus [high to low concentration]
    – Umbilical vein: (1) blood returning to fetal heart from chorionic villi where it is oxygenated and gets nutrients [high to low concentration]
122
Q

Trace the blood flow in a fetal circulation

A
  • Internal illiac arteries become…
    – Umbilical which then release wastes and carbon dioxide through chorionic villi into placenta sinus and takes up oxygen and nutrients from placenta sinus to chorionic villi and to…
    – Umbilical vein which go to the liver
    – Liver picks up some of the oxygen and nutrients and the rest go through…
    – Ductus venosus which leads to…
    – IFC which carries deoxygenated blood from fetus and go to…
    – Right atrium: Since no use for fetal lungs…
    • Some blood is bypassed through…
      – Foramen ovale: a hole within interatrial septum and goes to
      – Left atrium and proceeds as normal
    • Some blood will go through
      – Right atrioventricular valve to
      – Right ventricle and then through
      – Pulmonary semilunar valve to
      – Pulmonary trunk but since fetal lungs are non-functioning, most will go through…
      – Ductus arteriosus which goes to…
      – Aorta
123
Q

What structures do certain fetal circulatory structures become once we are born?

A

Umbilical vein => ligamentum teres / round ligament
Ductus venosus => ligamentum venosum
Foramen ovale => fossa ovalis
Ductus arteriosus => ligamentum arteriosum
Umbilical arteries => medial umbilical ligaments

124
Q

What are the different types of fluids within the body and where are they found?

A
  • Intracellular fluid (ICF): fluid within cells (cytosol)
  • Extracellular fluid (ECF): fluid outside of cells
    – Interstitial fluid: tissue fluid
    – Plasma: fluid within blood
    – Lymph: fluid within lymphatic system
    ~ Chyle: lymph with lipids and lipid-soluble substances
125
Q

What is the immune system and how is that different from the lymphatic system and their functions?

A
  • Immune System: NOT an organ system but contains cells that fight diseases and are mostly located in the lymphatic system
  • Lymphatic System: system that consists of organs and vessels
    – Function:
    • Fluid recovery: 85% of blood is reabsorbed but 15% goes into tissue fluid.
      Lymphatic system reabsorbs this and returns it to blood
    • Immunity: fluid reabsorbed go through lymph nodes where immune cells inspects pathogenic material and activates immune response
    • Lipid absorption: lacteals in villi of small intestine absorb lipids and lipid- soluble vitamins making it milky substance (chyle)
126
Q

What are the components within the lymphatic system and its functions?

A

Lymphatic System: system that consists of organs and vessels
– Structure:
* Lymph: reabsorbed fluid from blood/tissue
* Lymphatic vessels: transport lymph
* Lymphatic tissue: lymphocytes and macrophages that are within other organs
* Lymphatic organs: organs that have concentrated amounts of lymphocytes and macrophages

127
Q

What is lymph? Where is it from?

A

Lymph: clear, colorless fluid; ~ plasma but has few plasma protein
– From tissue fluid that was from blood that was not reabsorbed

128
Q

Trace the flow of lymph starting from lymphatic capillaries, naming the different structures they go through
and their functions

A

– Lymphatic capillaries converges to become…
– Lymphatic vessels: empty into lymph nodes to combat pathogens and then exit lymph nodes; then becomes…
– Lymphatic trunks becoming…
– Collecting ducts (two types):
1. R lymphatic duct
2. Thoracic duct containing…
~ Cisterna chyli: that receives a lot of the fatty intestinal lymph and lymph from legs
– R/L Subclavian veins

129
Q

What are valves and its function within lymphatic vessels?

A

Valves w/n lymphatic vessels: within their tunica interna to allowing one way flow of lymph

130
Q

What are lymphatic vessels and capillaries?

A

– Lymphatic vessels/ lymphatics: carry lymph and are similar to blood vessels
– Lymphatic capillaries/ terminal lymphatics: are found in every tissue usually around capillaries

131
Q

Where are lymphatic vessels and capillaries NOT found?

A

NOT found in CNS, cartilage, cornea, bone, and bone marrow

132
Q

What do lymphatic vessels and capillaries NOT have, allowing larger particles to get flow through them?

A

No tight junctions: allowing large particles to flow into them

133
Q

What are the 5 lymphatic trunks and where are they located?

A
  • Lymphatic trunks: drains major parts of the body and there are six of them which converge to…
    – Jugular trunks: drain lymph from head and neck
    – Subclavian trunks: drain lymph from upper limbs, breasts, and thoracic wall
    – Bronchomediastinal trunks: drain lymph from deep thoracic organs
    – Intestinal trunks: drain abdominal organs
    – Lumbar trunks: drain lower limbs, abdominopelvic wall, and pelvic organs
134
Q

What are the two collecting ducts and what lymph does it collect from what part of the body?

A

*Collecting ducts: lymphatic trunks converge to these and are the largest lymphatic vessels and have two of these:
1. Right lymphatic duct receives lymphatic drainage from right arm and right side of thorax and right head if present
2. Thoracic duct: begins below diaphragm and collects lymph from lower body, and left upper limb, left head, neck and thorax and also contains cisterna chyli

135
Q

What does the thoracic duct have in collecting fats?

A

Cisterna chyli: that receives a lot of the fatty intestinal lymph and lymph from legs

136
Q

Which collecting ducts empty into which vein?

A
  1. Right subclavian vein receives from right lymphatic duct
  2. Left subclavian vein receives from thoracic duct
137
Q

How does lymph flow through the lymphatic system to the cardiovascular system and why does it need these methods? Describe each method (5).

A

– Rhythmic contractions of lymphatic vessels: contracts when lymph stretches them
* Lymphatic vessels: prevent backflow of lymph
– Skeletal muscle pump: skeletal muscles contraction causes lymph to be pushed with lymph valves preventing backflow
– Arterial pulsation: lymphatic vessels are near arteries; when arteries pulsation occurs, squeeze lymphatic vessels
– Thoracic/respiratory pump: during inhalation, it lowers the thoracic cavity pressure; high to low pressure; allowing lymph to go towards the thoracic cavity
– Blood flow of subclavian veins: which pulls the lymph into the subclavian veins

138
Q

What are all the different types of lymphatic cells and their functions?

A

– Leukocytes:
* Granulocytes
~ Neutrophils: phagocytize bacteria
~ Eosinophils: kills parasites, respond to allergens, and increase basophils and mast cells
~ Basophils: causes increase mobility and action of neutrophil and eosinophils by releasing heparin and histamine
* Agranulocytes
~ Lymphocytes:
– Natural killer (NK) cells: Attacks bacteria, transplanted tissues, and host cells that are infected by viruses or cancerous
– T lymphocytes (T cells): make up majority of lymphocytes and mature and dependent in/on thymus; binds to foreign antigens on cells and then pokes holes in plasma membrane and causing cell to undergo apoptosis
– B lymphocytes (B cells): mature in bone marrow and secrete antibodies
~ Monocytes which become…
– Macrophages (type of APC): take up dying tissue, bacteria, etc undergo phagocytosis
– Other APCs
* Dendritic cells: branched, mobile APCs in epidermis, mucous membranes, and lymphatic organs to alert immune system of pathogens; undergo receptor mediated endocytosis instead of phagocytosis

139
Q

What are APC?

A

Antigen-presenting cells (APC): to present antigens to other lymphatic cells

140
Q

What are the different types of lymphocytes and their functions?

A
  • B lymphocytes (B cells): mature in bone marrow and secrete antibodies
    – Some become plasma cells that secrete antibodies that bind to antigens so they are marked to be destroyed
  • T lymphocytes (T cells): make up majority of lymphocytes and mature in thymus and are dependent on thymus hormones
    – Binds to foreign antigens on cells and then pokes holes in plasma membrane and causing cell to undergo apoptosis(programmed cell death)
  • Natural killer (NK) cells: Attacks bacteria, transplanted tissues, and host cells that are infected by viruses or cancerous
141
Q

What cells do B cells become?

A

Some become plasma cells that secrete antibodies that bind to antigens so they are marked to be destroyed

142
Q

What is apoptosis?

A

programmed cell death

143
Q

After the immune system is activated what types of lymphocytes cells are made and how are they different?

A

– Lymphocytes: activated after being infected
– Types:
* Effector lymphocytes: responds to pathogen quickly but die
* Memory lymphocytes: clones of cells that are within lymph tissues and when encounters foreign antigen again, faster response giving us acquired immunity

144
Q

What are lymphatic nodules?

A

locations where there are lots of lymphocytes and macrophages without a capsule

145
Q

What is MALT and where It is found? What is an example?

A

Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT): large collections of lymphatic nodules in the mucosa of the respiratory, digestive, urinary and reproductive tracts
– Peyer’s patches: found in the ileum (small intestine)

146
Q

What are the lymphatic organs?

A
  • Lymphatic/lymphoid organs: anatomical locations with lymphatic tissue
    – Primary lymphatic organs
    – Secondary lymphatic organs
147
Q

How does primary vs secondary lymphatic organs differ?

A

– Primary lymphatic organs: sites where B and T lymphocytes develop to recognize and respond to antigens
* Red bone marow: location where B lymphocytes develop
* Thymus: location where T lymphocytes develop
~ Degenerates with age
~ Matures T lymphocytes but does not fight antigens directly
– Secondary lymphatic organs: location where stored at these location after maturing from primary lymphatic organs
* Lymph nodes:
* Tonsils:
* Spleen:
* Appendix:

148
Q

What are the two types of bone marrow and their functions?

A

– Yellow bone marrow: adipose tissue
– Red bone marrow: for hemopoiesis in most bones in kids but in axial skeleton and proximal heads of humerus and femur in adults

149
Q

What functions does the thymus do?

A

– Function
* Lymphatic: Location of developing/maturation of
lymphocytes (T cells)
* Endocrine: Hormone secretion to regulate T cells

150
Q

What does the thymus have to protect it from pathogens in blood?

A

Blood thymus barrier: prevents pathogens in blood to mingle with developing T lymphocytes in cortex

151
Q

What are lymph nodes and its function?

A

Lymph nodes: most abundant lymphatic organ
– Function:
* Filters and cleans lymph
* Site of T and B lymphocytes are activated

152
Q

Where are some (3) locations where you find lymph nodes and what happens when there is an infection?

A

– Cervical lymph nodes: located in the neck which monitor lymph from head and neck
– Axillary lymph nodes: at axilla and receives lymph from upper limb and breast
– Inguinal lymph nodes: near groin and receives lymph from lower limb
* Swollen and painful lymph nodes occurs during sickness when B lymphocytes are multiplying

153
Q

What are tonsils and its functions?

A

Tonsils: patches of lymphatic tissues near pharynx to guard against ingested and inhaled pathogens

154
Q

Name some types (3) of tonsil and their locations?

A
  • Pharyngeal tonsil/adenoid: (1) located at nasopharynx
  • Palatine tonsils: (2) located on the posterior part of the oral cavity
  • Lingual tonsils: many that are located root of the tongue
155
Q

What is the spleen and its function?

A

Spleen: largest lymphatic organ; erythropoiesis in fetus and extreme anemia in adults

156
Q

What are the different parts of the spleen and their functions?

A

– Red pulp: venous supply with lots of erythrocytes, surrounds white pulp
* Erythrocyte graveyard: old RBCs are phagocytized by macrophages
* Erythrocyte and platelet reservoir
– White pulp: consists of lymphocytes and macrophages; ovoid in shape with artery passing through it
* Monitors blood for pathogens
* Stabilize blood volume by transferring excess plasma to lymphatic system

157
Q

What are the structures within the respiratory system?

A

– Upper respiratory system
– Lower respiratory system

158
Q

What are the structures between the upper vs lower respiratory tract?

A

– Upper respiratory tract: nose, nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx
– Lower respiratory tract: trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli

159
Q

What are the structures and differences between the conducting and respiratory portion of the respiratory system?

A

– Conducting zone/portion: transports air
* Upper respiratory tract, trachea, bronchi, terminal bronchioles
– Respiratory zone/portion: gas exchange between air and blood
* Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli

160
Q

What is ventilation and what types of ventilation are there?

A
  • Pulmonary ventilation/ Breathing: movement of air into and out of the lungs
    – Inhalation/Inspiration: movement of air into the lungs
    – Exhalation/Expiration: movement of air out of lungs
161
Q

What is respiration and the types of respiration?

A
  • Gas Exchange: exchange of gas between air and blood or between blood and cells
    – External respiration: gas exchange between air and blood
    – Internal respiration: gas exchange between blood and cells/tissue
162
Q

What are the functions (6) of the respiratory system

A

– Ventilation: movement of air into and out of the lungs
– Respiration: exchange of gas between air and blood or between blood and cells
– Gas conditioning: within conducting airways it humidifies and warm atmospheric air in the respiratory tract before entering respiratory airways
– Sound production: speech, singing as air passes through larynx
– Olfaction: smelling via olfactory nerves embedded in olfactory epithelium
– Defense: prevent particles and pathogens from entering our lungs by vibrissae (nose hairs), mucus, and lysozyme

163
Q

What is the nose?

A

Nose: main conducting airway

164
Q

What structure allows air to enter the nose?

A

External nares/ nostrils: opening to the nasal cavity

165
Q

What is the nasal cavity and what structures (4)do you find in there and their functions?

A
  • Nasal cavity: lined with respiratory epithelium (ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium) with goblet cells to make mucus except for the most superior area which is lined with olfactory epithelium that contains olfactory nerves
    – Nasal septum: divides the right and left of nasal cavity formed by the perpendicular plate and vomer and septal cartilage
    – Nasal conchae: bony projections of the lateral walls of nasal cavity (superior, middle, inferior) forms…
    – Nasal meatus: passageways formed by nasal conchae (superior, middle, inferior) to help humidify and warm atmospheric air
    – Choanae /internal nares: opening that leads to the pharynx
166
Q

What are the paranasal sinuses and what do they do?

A
  • Paranasal sinuses: help lighten the skull, humidify and warm atmospheric air, and sound resonance
    – Frontal sinus
    – Ethmoid sinuses
    – Sphenoid sinus
    – Maxillary sinuses
167
Q

What is the pharynx and its function?

A

Pharynx: passageway for air from nasal cavity to larynx and food from oral cavity to esophagus

168
Q

What are the three parts of the pharynx and their structures found in each part with their functions?

A

– Nasopharynx: superior portion of pharynx, posterior to nasal cavity for air to pass through
* Pharyngeal/adenoids: lymphatic organ
* Auditory tubes’ passageway connect to nasopharynx to equalize pressure
* Uvula: portion of the soft palate that prevents food from entering the nasal cavity
– Oropharynx: posterior to oral cavity and passageway for air from nasopharynx and food from oral cavity
* Palatine tonsils: lymphatic organ
* Lingual tonsils: lymphatic organ
* Fauces: opening between the oral cavity and oropharynx
– Laryngopharynx: posterior to larynx and inferior portion of pharynx for air to pass through to larynx and food to pass through to esophagus

169
Q

What are the types of epithelium for each part of the pharynx?

A

– Nasopharynx: made of pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
– Oropharynx: made of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium
– Laryngopharynx: made of nonkeratinized stratified squamous epithelium

170
Q

What is the larynx and its function?

A

Larynx: voice box for sound production and passageway for air to pass through pharynx to trachea

171
Q

What are the (6) cartilages that make up the larynx and their location and function?

A

– Thyroid cartilage: largest and is forms anterior and lateral walls of larynx made of hyaline cartilage
* Laryngeal prominence: “Adam’s apple” and forms the anterior portion of the thyroid cartilage
– Cricoid cartilage: forms base of larynx and connects to trachea made of hyaline cartilage
– Arytenoid cartilage: rests on cricoid cartilage made of hyaline cartilage
– Carniculate cartilage: attaches to arytenoid cartilage made of hyaline cartilage
– Cuneiform cartilage: not directly attached to other cartilages and supported within connective tissue ; made of hyaline cartilage
– Epiglottic cartilage: Elastic cartilage and prevents food/liquids from entering larynx

172
Q

What is the glottis and what does it contain?

A

Glottis: contains both the rima glottidis and vocal folds
– Rima glottidis: opening between the true vocal cords
– True vocal folds/vocal folds: produce sounds as air pass through. Ligaments attached to thyroid and arytenoid cartilages

173
Q

What is the difference between true vs false vocal cords?

A

– True vocal cords/vocal folds: produce sounds as air pass through. Ligaments attached to thyroid and arytenoid cartilages
– False vocal cords/ventricular folds: does NOT produce sounds but protect vocal folds and ligaments attach to corniculate cartilages

173
Q

What is the trachea? Where is it located compared to the esophagus?

A

Trachea: “windpipe”, anterior to esophagus. Air passageway from larynx to bronchi

174
Q

What is the trachea? Where is it located compared to the esophagus?

A

Trachea: “windpipe”, anterior to esophagus. Air passageway from larynx to bronchi

175
Q

What are the layers of the trachea and what type of tissue is in each layer?

A

– Mucosa: Outermost layer facing lumen
* Psuedostratified ciliated columnar epithelium w/ goblet cells: Cilia propels mucus toward pharynx to be coughed up or swallowed.
* Lamina propria: connective tissue
– Submucosa: deep to mucosa and contains seromucous glands that produce both mucus and watery substance
– Media/middle tunic: contains…
* Tracheal rings: C-shaped hyaline cartilage to prevent closing of air passageway
* Trachealis muscle: on the posterior side of the trachea, allowing esophagus to expand anteriorly when food/liquids passes; contracts/relaxes to adjust air flow
– Adventitia: below submucosa layer and contains fibrous connective tissue that blends into adventitia of other organs

176
Q

What is the structure that divides into the two primary bronchi?

A

Carina: Cartilage that forms an internal ridge at the most inferior portion of trachea where it separates into two primary bronchi

177
Q

What is the bronchial tree and the type of tissue it contains?

A

Bronchial tree: branched system of air conducting passageways made of hyaline cartilage
– Primary bronchi: in complete rings of hyaline cartilage that enter hilum/hilus of each lung and branches into…
– Secondary/ lobar bronchi: Supplies air to each lobe of lung: three into right lung and two into the left lung. Branches into…
– Tertiary/segmental bronchi: supplies air to each broncho pulmonary segments. Branches into… etc. etc. all the way down to 9-12 bronchial branches

178
Q

What occurs as we go further down the bronchial tree?

A

As we continue down…
– Less and less cartilage
– Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium gradually become ciliated columnar epithelium to simple cuboidal epithelium
– More and more complete ring of smooth muscle

179
Q

How are bronchioles different from bronchi?

A

Bronchioles: contains no cartilage but thick smooth muscles for constriction or dilation of airway and have simple columnar/cuboidal epithelium
~ Bronchi has hyaline cartilage

180
Q

What types of bronchioles are there and how are they different?

A

– Terminal bronchioles: simple columnar ET; conducting pathway that carries air to and branches into…
– Respiratory bronchioles: respiratory pathway that contains thinner epithelium (simple cuboidal) for gas diffusion and continues to branch into alveolar ducts
* where respiratory pathway/gas diffusion occurs

181
Q

What are alveolar ducts and its type of tissue?

A

simple squamous epithelium that branches from respiratory bronchioles and ends at alveolar sacs

182
Q

What are alveolar sacs?

A

Alveolar sacs: contains bundles of alveoli

183
Q

What are alveoli and its function?

A

Alveoli: roundish pockets to increase the surface area for gas exchange with pulmonary capillaries

184
Q

What types of cells are found in the alveoli and their functions?

A
  • Alveolar Type I cells /squamous alveolar cells: simple squamous epithelial cells for gas diffusion
  • Alveolar Type II cells/septal cells: cuboidal in shape that produce…
    – Surfactant: fluid of lipids and proteins to reduce surface tension to prevent alveoli from collapsing (produced during the late fetal stages)
  • Alveolar macrophages/dust cells: protection by phagocytizing microbes or foreign particles
185
Q

What is the respiratory membrane and what structures forms it? What is it function?

A

Respiratory membrane: wall between alveolar lumen and blood capillary. Allowing oxygen to pass through lumen of alveoli through respiratory membrane into blood and carbon dioxide from blood through respiratory membrane into lumen of alveoli
– Wall of alveolus: made of alveolar type I cells
– Basement membrane that fuses these epithelia
– Wall of capillary: simple squamous epithelium

186
Q

What are the structures found on the lung?

A
  • Lungs contain the bronchial tree and respiratory part of the respiratory system
    – Base: inferior portion of lung that rest on diaphragm
    – Apex: superior portion of lung
    – Hilum/hilus: located at the medial surface of the lungs where the primary bronchi and pulmonary vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves enter the lungs (root)
187
Q

What are the surfaces of the lung and what structures do you find in there and why?

A
  • Costal surfaces: anterior/posterior/lateral surfaces of lung
  • Mediastinal surface: medial surface of the lung
    – Cardiac notch: anterior indentation due to heart on left lung only
188
Q

How many lobes are in each lung and what spaces divides them?

A
  • Left lung
    – Two lobes
  • Superior/Upper
    ➢ Oblique fissure
  • Inferior/Lower
  • Right lung
    – Three lobes
  • Superior/Upper
    ➢ Horizontal fissure
  • Middle
    ➢ Oblique fissure
  • Inferior/Lower
189
Q

Divisions of the lungs are supplied by what part of the respiratory tract?

A

Bronchopulmonary segment: each segment is supplied by a TERTIARY bronchus (~10 / lung). Autonomous unit

190
Q

Which is an autonomous unit?

A

Lung
* Bronchopulmonary segment !
Lobules

191
Q

What are the layers of the pleurae and the potential space between them?

A

– Visceral pleura: serous membrane that line the outer surface of the lungs
➢ Pleural cavity: potential space between visceral and parietal pleurae
– Parietal pleura: serous membrane that line the thoracic walls, lateral surface mediastinum, and superior part of diaphragm

192
Q

What is Boyle’s Law and how does that affect air flow into/out of the lungs?

A

Boyle’s law: Pressure α 1 / 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
* Air flows from high to low pressure
* High V = Low P; Low V = High P

193
Q

What muscles contracts when you are at rest?

A

When at rest, expiration is passive (relax to our diaphragm) due to elastic properties of lungs

194
Q

Which muscles contract during forceful ventilation?

A

– Scalene: (Forced inhalation) contraction causes elevating first two ribs
– Internal intercostals: (Forced exhalation) contraction depresses ribs decreasing lateral volume of thoracic cavity
– Abdominals: (Forced exhalation) contractions pushes visceral organs against diaphragm decreasing volume of thoracic cavity

195
Q

What muscles contract during inspiration?

A

– Diaphragm: contraction causes it to flatten increasing volume of thoracic cavity
– External intercostals: contraction causes elevation of ribs increasing lateral volume of thoracic cavity
– Scalene: (Forced inhalation) contraction causes elevating first two ribs

196
Q

What muscles contract during expiration?

A

– Internal intercostals: (Forced exhalation) contraction depresses ribs decreasing lateral volume of thoracic cavity
– Abdominals: (Forced exhalation) contractions pushes visceral organs against diaphragm decreasing volume of thoracic cavity

197
Q

Where are the respiratory control centers located at?

A

– Pons
– Medulla oblongata

198
Q

What does the chemoreceptors measure? Which ones are most of the time that regulate breathing?

A

Chemoreceptors: measures the amount of CO2 and O2 and pH in the blood
– mostly detects pH first, then CO2, then O2

199
Q

What are the different types of chemoreceptors and where are they found?

A
  • Central chemoreceptors: within medulla oblongata
  • Peripheral chemoreceptors: outside of CNS
    – Aortic bodies
    – Carotid bodies
200
Q

Which nerves transmit information to control centers?

A

– Aortic bodies on aortic arch sending information through CNX (Vagus nerve)
– Carotid bodies at the fork of the common carotid artery sending information through CNIX (mostly Glossopharyngeal nerve) and maybe CNX (Vagus nerve)

Anatomy 001 (4 decks)

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