Anatomy & Physiology Flashcards
tissues
a group of cells performing a common function
epithelial tissues
functions as a covering of either the inside or outside of the body (e.g. skin or lining of digestive tract)
connective tissue
many types-loose, dense, adipose, cartilage, bone, blood
general characteristics include connective tissue fibers (e.g. collagen) and the cells secreting materials such as ground substance (holds cells together)
skeletal system function
protection, movement, mineral storage, production of blood
osteoblasts
cells responsible for bone formation
osteoclasts
cells responsible for breaking down bone to be re-formed
bone formation
bone contains blood vessels and heals better than cartilage, which has no blood supply and needs nutrients to diffuse in
axial skeleton
composed of the skull, vertebral column, and the rib cage, which includes the ribs and sternum
appendicular skeleton
the bones associated with the appendages
all of the bones not associated with the axial skeleton
muscle function
movement in different directions
typically achieved by the action of pairs of antagonistic or opposing muscles
muscles contract (shorten) to relax
contraction requires calcium
muscle fibers
bundles that make up muscles
myofibrils
bundles that make up muscle fibers
composed of actin and myosin
smooth muscle
lines the blood vessels and gastrointestinal tract
striated muscle
includes skeletal muscle (movement) and cardiac muscle (pumps blood)
nervous system
sensory functions and control movement
sensory functions
sending and processing sensory information (e.g. hearing, seeing, touch, etc.)
controlling movement
sending signals to muscles to make them move
neuron
basic unit (cell) of the nervous system consists of a cell body, axon, and branching dendrites
axon
signal conduction
sometimes wrapped in myelin which prevents signal loss
dentrites
branch out at the end which increase the area for connecting to other neurons of muscle
the synapse
the place where signal transmission occurs
a junction between 2 neurons or between a neuron and a muscle
neurotransmitters
chemicals which are stored in the synapse (in vesicles) and then released to send a signal to the next cell
acetylcholine
neurotransmitter
binds to acetylcholine receptors on the receiving cell
central nervous system
consists of the brain and spinal cord
meninges
a covering of the central nervous system
surrounds the brain and spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
everything that isn’t in the central nervous system
peripheral nerves run to and from the central nervous system
the 2 types of peripheral nerves are sensory and motor
autonomic nervous system
involuntary (you don’t have to think about these)
e.g. control of heart beat, digestion, breathing
usually involves smooth muscle and cardiac muscle
somatic nervous system
voluntary- you control this
usually involves skeletal muscle
can be subdivided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
sympathetic
usually accelerates things (e.g. heart rate)
parasympathetic
usually slows things down
reflexes
certain movements involve sensory information which is not processed by the brain
reflexes are faster because a signal does not have to be sent up to and then return from the brain
processing takes place in a region of the spinal cord
the brain
composed of the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem
cerebrum
its functions are processing sensory information and memory
cerebellum
receives information from muscles and sensory receptors
controls balance and coordinated movement
brain stem
controls many autonomic functions such as breathing and heart beat
eye
composed of cornea, lens, iris, retina, and optic nerve
cornea
front surface of the eye
lens
located within the anterior chamber of the eye
iris
controls the amount of light passing through the lens
retina
located on the posterior surface of the eye
rods and cones in the retina detect light
optic nerve
sends signals to the brain
outer ear
collects sound and sends it to the ear drum through the auditory canal
middle ear
separated from the outer ear by the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
vibrations picked up by tympanic membrane get passed through a series of small bones (incus, malleus, and stapes)
connected to the pharynx (throat) by the Eustachian tube (auditory tube)
functions to equalize pressure
inner ear
made up of cochlea and 3 semicircular canals
cochlea
processes sound and sends the information down the auditory nerve
semicircular canals
function is to balance or create dynamic equilibrium
blood
circulatory system
transports wastes, nutrients, and oxygen
composed of plasma, erythrocytes, and leukocytes
plasma
fluid portion of blood
contains water, proteins, and electrolytes
erythrocytes
red blood cells
carry oxygen via the transport protein hemoglobin
old red blood cells are removed in the liver and spleen
leukocytes
white blood cells
most function in the immune system to protect the body against disease
some (platelets) are involved in blood clotting
blood circulation
heart –> artery –> arteriole –> capillary –> venule –> vein –> back to heart
capillaries
thinnest and most numerous blood vessels
arteries
largest blood vessels
have a muscular wall
pulmonary circulation
takes blood from the heart to the lungs and back
oxygen poor blood (pulmonary)
right ventricle to the pulmonary artery
**most ARTERIES contain oxygen RICH blood, this is the exception
oxygen rich blood (pulmonary)
returns from the lungs to the heart via the pulmonary vein, enters the left atrium and then goes to the left ventricle
**most VEINS contain oxygen POOR blood, this is the exception
systemic circulation
takes blood from the heart to the body and back
oxygen poor blood (systemic)
returns from the body to the right atrium
oxygen rich blood (systemic)
left ventricle pumps it to the body via the aorta (largest vessel with the highest pressure)
respiratory system
brings in O2 and gets rid of CO2
upper respiratory tract
consists of nasal cavity, sinuses, middle ear, oral cavity, pharynx (throat), and the larynx (voice box)
lower respiratory tract
consists of the trachea, bronchi and bronchioles, alveoli, and diaphragm
trachea
wind pipe
bronchi
the trachea branches into 2 major branches call bronchi, each of which lead into a lung
bronchioles
bronchi branch into these smaller tubes
alveoli
the air sacs at the end of the bronchioles
gas exchange takes place here
fragile structures, only 1 cell thick for gas exchange
diaphragm
a sheet of muscle that marks the boundary between the thoracic and abdominal cavities
negative pressure breathing-diaphragm drops down and creates a vacuum in the thoracic cavity which sucks in air
gas exchange at alveoli
takes place by diffusion
CO2 diffuses out of the blood stream and O2 diffuses in
endocrine system
controls a wide range of bodily functions-metabolism, growth, reproduction, temperature
hormones
chemical messengers used in endocrine system
tropic hormones affect endocrine glands
steroidal hormones
produced mainly by the testes, ovaries and adrenal glands
estrogen, testosterone, cortisol, aldosterone
non-steroidal (peptide) hormones
all other hormones
endocrine cells and glands
produce hormones which travel through the blood stream to the target organ(s) and have a specific effect on them
include hypothalamus, pituitary gland, TSH, FSH, LH, and pineal gland
hypothalamus
produces various hormones which effect the pituitary gland
pituitary gland
produces growth hormone ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)
TSH
thyroid stimulating hormone
FSH
follicle-stimulating hormone
controls ovulation, menstrual cycle, and sperm production
LH
luteinizing hormone
controls ovulation, menstrual cycle, and sperm production
pineal gland
melatonin- influences biological clock
thyroid
thyroxin influences metabolism
parathyroid
parathyroid hormone increases blood Ca
adrenal glands
cortisol, aldosterone, epinephrine (adrenaline) & norepherine
cortisol
raises blood pressure, reduces immune function
aldosterone
regulates Na/K balance in the blood
epinephrine (adrenaline) & norepherine
fight or flight response to stress and acetylcholine
pancreas
produces insulin and glucagon for glucose metabolism
ovary
estrogen- regulates menstrual cycle and reproductive system
testes
testosterone- promotes tissue growth and regulates the reproductive system
digestive system
functions in digesting food, metabolizing food, and excreting waste
digestive enzymes
amylase and proteases
amylase
enzyme in saliva that breaks down starch
proteases
enzymes that break down protein
present in saliva and gastric secretions
components of digestive system
mouth, salivary glands, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, doudenum, small intestine, large intestine, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas
mouth
teeth start the mechanical break down of food
salivary glands
saliva starts the digestive process (via salivary enzymes)
saliva also acts as a lubricant
parotid is the largest of the salivary glands
pharynx
throat
food passes through here from the mouth to the esophagus
esophagus
muscular tube which leads to the stomach
esophageal sphincter-a valve that separates it from the stomach
stomach
has a muscular wall lined with mucus
contains gastric enzymes and acid (pH=1) for breaking down food
doudenum
first portion of the intestine after the stomach
separated from stomach by the duodenal sphincter
small intestine
ilium
this is where the majority of digestion and nutrient absorption take places
the surface is covered with thousands of finger-like projections called villi
villi increase the surface area for absorption of nutrients
peristalsis
movement of material through the intestines is achieved by these musclar contractions
large intestine
colon waste is produced here water is absorbed removal produces feces or stool final portion of the large intestine is the rectum
liver
important for metabolism
involved in the production and breakdown of proteins
produces and breaks down glycogen which is involved in sugar metabolism
breaks down toxins
gallbladder
releases bile into the duodenum
bile is responsible for breaking down fats
pancreas
produces insulin which is involved in glucose metabolism
excretory system
removes waste and retains materials the body needs
contains the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra
kidneys
major excretory organ
have massive amounts of blood flowing through them all the time
remove waste from the blood stream
glomeruli
the site in the kidney where filtration occurs
process involves active transport to eliminate the materials that are not wanted by the body (e.g. urea) while reabsorbing those that are wanted (e.g. glucose, Na+, and water)
ureters
tubes which transport urine from the kidneys to the bladder
bladder
site for storage of urine
urethra
urine flows to the outside from the bladder by way of the urethra
