anatomy + physiology Flashcards
what is a joint?
where two or more bones are connected/ where they meet
what is the purpose of synovial joints
they allow free movements
what are the 5 main features of a synovial joint
ligament
synovial fluid
articular cartilage
joint capsule
bursa
what is a ligament
a tough band of slightly elastic connective tissue
what is the function of ligament
it connects bone to bone & stabalises joints during movement
what is synovial fluid
a lubricating liquid contained within the joint cavity
what is the function of the synovial fluid
it helps reduced friction & nourishes the articulate cartilage
what is articular cartilage
smooth tissue which covers the surface of articulating bones
what is the function of articular cartilage
absorb shock & allows friction free movement
what is the joint capsule
a fibrous sac with an inner synovial membrane
what is the function of the joint capsule
encloses & strengthens the joint secreting synovial fluid
what is a bursa
a closed, fluid filled sac found where tendons rub over bones
what is the function of a bursa
reduces friction between tendons and bones
what is a hinge joint
a joint that only allows movement in one direction
structure of a hinge joint
shallow cap, shallow curve
movement of a hinge joint
extension and flexion
what is extension
when the angle of a joint increases
what is flexion
when the angle of a joint decreases
examples of hinge joints
elbow joint
knee joint
ankle joint
what is plantar flexion
when toes point towards the floor during ankle hinge joint movements
what is dorsi flexion
when toes point towards the persons knees during ankle hinge joint movements
example of plantar flexion
high jump, calf raises
example of dorsi flexion
squat
what is a ball & socket joint
when movement can happen in all direction
structure of a ball & socket joint
deep cap, round ball
movement in ball & socket joint
abduction, adduction, extension, flexion, circumduction, rotation
example of ball & socket joints
hip joint
shoulder joint
what are the two types of rotation
medial & lateral
what is medial rotation
when the movement is towards the midline of the body
example of medial rotation
forehand in tennis
what is lateral rotation
when the movement is away from the midline of body
what is lateral rotation
when the movement is away from the midline of body
example of lateral rotation
backhand in tennis
what is abduction
when a sideways movement is made away from the midline of the body
what is adduction
when a sideways movement is made towards the midline of the body
what is circumduction
when a circular movement takes place within a joint
what are the 5 Types of synovial joints
hinge
ball and socket
condyloid
gliding
pivot
examples of hinge joints
elbow
knee
ankle
example of ball and socket joints
hip
shoulder
examples of condyloid joints
wrist
finger
example of gliding joint
wrist carpals
ankle tarsals
example of pivot joint
atlas and axis in the neck
what is an antagonistic muscle pair
2 muscles that oppose eachother to create movement
(one contracts, the other relaxes)
what is an agonist muscle
muscle that contracts and shortens
- muscle that initiates the primary movement and is the prime mover
what is an antagonist muscle
the muscle that relaxes and lengthens
- the muscle that opposes the movement of the agonist muscle
what are the two types of contractions
isotonic & isometric
what is isotonic contractions
when the muscle changes length as the contraction is creating a force and movement is created
what is isometric contractions
when the muscle changes length as the contraction is creating a force but no movement is created
what are the two types of isotonic contractions
concentric and eccentric
what is a isotonic concentric contraction
when the muscle contracts and shortens
what is an isotonic eccentric contraction
when the muscle contracts and lengthens producing tension during movement
example of concentric contraction
biceps brachii during the upwards phase of a bicep curl
example of eccentric contraction
biceps brachii during the downwards phase of a bicep curl controlling the bar and resisting forces such as gravity
what are the three planes of movement
frontal
sagittal
transverse
what is the frontal plane of movement
when the body is split into back and front halves
examples of frontal plane movements
cartwheel / star jump
what is action potential
a process where the nerve impulse is conducted down the axon to the motor end plate
what is the neuromuscular junction
where the axon motor end plate meets the muscle fibres
what is the synaptic cleft
the gap between the end plate and the muscle fibre
what is the all or none law
if the ACH threshold is not met when the hormone meets the fibers- a contraction will not take place
explain the process of a motor unit causing muscle contraction
- electrochemical impulse from CNS travel to neurone
- impulse transported across axon towards action potential
- muscle gets triggered & ACH neurotransmitter is secreted
- release of NA into axon causes depolarisation (from secretion)
- impulse travels to synaptic cleft and crosses the synapse to the muscle fibres
- threshold if met for ACH, contraction takes place
what are the three types of muscle fibres
type 1 - slow oxidative
type 2a - fast oxidative glycolytic
type 2b - fast glycolytic
what are slow oxidative fibres
fibres that produce small amounts of force for each contraction over a long period of time
- resist fatigue
- designed to store oxygen and process o2 to mitochondria
- work aerobically
what are fast oxidative glycolytic fibres
fibres that produce a large amount of force quickly
-resist fatigie
what are fast glycolytic fibres
fibres that produce a large amount of force
- fatigue quickly
- large stores if phosphocreatine for immediate energy
- anaerobic
what activities are suited for slow oxidative muscle fibres
low intensity & long distance
what activities are suited to fast glycolytic muscle fibres
high intensity short duration ie 100m sprint
what activities are more suited to fast oxidative glycolytic muscle fibres
high intensity long duration sports ie 800m
how is slow oxidative muscle fibres recovery
used for sub maximal exercise
- very quick (90 seconds)
- work:relief is 1:1/ 1:1.5
- minimal fibre damage
how is fast glycolytic muscle fibres recovery
used when muscles exhausted
- 2- 20 seconds
- 4 to 10 days of recovery
- work:relief is 1:3
how is blood transported to the muscles
via the systematic circulatory system - oxygenated blood travels from the heart to muscle tissue
what is the conduction system
a set of five structures that pass an electrical impulse through the heart
what are the five structures in the conduction system
- sinoatrial node
- atrioventricular node
- bundle of his
- bundle branches
- purkinje fibres
what is the process of the conduction system
- SAN generates an electrical impulse which travels through the atrium walls, causing atrial systole
- AVN collects the impulse and a small delay occurs before the impulse is sent to the bundle of his.
_ the bundle of his will conduct this impulse across its branches until it reaches the purkinje fibres - the purkinje fibres will conduct this impulse causing ventricular systole.
- there is a small delay where no impulse occurs - this allows atrial diastole to take place as the atria re fills with blood before the process repeats
what is cardiac output
the amount of blood pumped per min by the heart
- Litres/min
what is stroke volume
the volume of blood pumped from each ventricle per contraction
- ml
what is the average rest CO
5 L/min
what is the average rest SV
70ml
what is the average rest HR
72 bpm
what is bradycardia
when an individuals resting HR falls below 60 bpm
how to calculate CO
Q = SV x HR
what is the Heart Rate response to exercise
HR will increase w exercise and decrease during rest
- reflects supply and demand of O2 therefore higher heart rate = higher demand of O2 from body
what is the stroke volume response to exercise
SV will increase linearly to intensity of exercise
- the higher the intensity of exercise, the higher the stroke volume of that individual during exercise
what is venus return
the return of the blood to the right atria
what is starlings law
SV dependent on Venous return
- increased Venous return means increased SV
- increased stretch on ventricle therefore higher force of contraction therefore more blood pumped out per beat
what are the three main factors affecting activity of the CCC?
neural control
hormonal control
intrinsic control
what is neural control
when the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems send signals to the CCC to stimulate the SA node to help regulate HR through sensory neurones
during neural control - what 3 receptors stimulate the CCC
proprioceptors
chemoreceptors
baroreceptors
what is the role of sensory neurones in neural control
to detect changes in the body during exercise to stimulate CCC to stimulate SA node to change HR
what do proprioceptors do?
detect activity change in the body and send an impulse to the CCC to send impulses to the SA node to increase firing rate therefore increasing HR to provide oxygen and glucose for working muscles
what do chemoreceptors do
detect chemical imbalances/ changes in the blood (lactic acid/ CO2 blood concentration)and send impulse to CCC to send impulse to SA node to increase firing rate to increased amount of oxygen pumped around the body to decrease chemical imbalance
what do baroreceptors do
detect changes in blood viscosity and signal CCC to send impulses to SA node to increase HR by increases firing rate which will send blood through the body quicker therefore lowering viscosity
what do baroreceptors do
detect changes in blood viscosity and signal CCC to send impulses to SA node to increase HR by increases firing rate which will send blood through the body quicker therefore lowering viscosity
what happens during the Sympathetic Nervous System
- the CCC receives information from sensory nodes regarding changes in the body
- CCC sends an impulse down the accelerator nerve to increase the firing rate of the SA node, thus increasing HR, thus more oxygen and glucose delivered to working muscles
what is intrinsic control
temperature will increase
- this decreases blood viscosity therefore higher blood flow
- (starlings law) venous return increases therefore SV increases bc ventricle elasticity increases therefore more blood enters the ventricles and more blood is pumped out per beat
- increase in strength on contractions more blood needs to be pumped
- increases amount of nerve impulses therefore heart contracts more and HR increases (self stimulates myogenically to increase/decrease heart contractions/HR)
what is hormonal control
prior to exercise adrenaline is released from adrenal gland
- can increase HR which increases force of ventricular contraction which increases SV
- tells SA node to increase firing rate so more o2 and glucose can be pumped to the working muscles before they start working
what happens during parasympathetic nervous system
ccc sends impulse down the vagus nerve to decrease the firing of the SA node thus decreasing HR thus decreasing the amount of o2 supplied to muscles
what is the vascular system
a system that consists of blood vessels and blood that transport nutrients and waste products
what body processes (3) does the vascular system help with
- delivery of oxygen and glucose
- fighting disease
- temperature regulation
what are the three blood vessels in the vascular system
- arteries/ arterioles
- veins/ venules
- capillaries
what are arterioles
smaller arteries w/ a larger layer of smooth muscle in the lumen to allow the lumen diameter to fluctuate
what are capillaries
single layer cells which penetrate muscles and organ cells which allow for gas exchange
what are venules
smaller blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart
what is venodilation
when the vein/ venules widen
what is venoconstriction
when the vein/venule narrows
what is the purpose of venodilation and venoconstriction taking place?
helps maintain the slow flow of blood towards the heart
what are the 5 venous return mechanisms
- pocket valves
- muscular pump
- respiratory pump
- smooth muscle
- gravity
what are pocket valves
one way valve in the vein which prevents backflow of blood
what is a muscular pump
the contraction of skeletal muscles during exercise which compress the veins forcing blood out
what is a respiratory pump
as the pressure in the thoracic and the abdominal cavities changes during inspiration and expiration, blood is squeezed back towards the heart
what is smooth muscle
a layer of smooth muscle in the walls of veins venoconstricts, creating a venomotor tone.
- this maintains pressure in the veins and helps transport blood back to the heart
how does gravity affect venous return
blood from above the heart will return to the heart due to the help of gravity
what is blood pooling
the accumalation of blood in the veins due to gravitational pull and lack of VR
what is active recovery
low intensity activity post exercise to maintain elevated heart & breathing rates (cool downs)
what is the vascular shunt mechanism
where blood is redistributed to muscles which need it (working muscles)
how does the vascular shunt mechanism work
Vascular control centre (VCC) receives information from chemoreceptors about an increase in blood acidity and also barorecepetors regarding pressure changes in arterial walls
- vasoconstriction takes place to reduce blood flow
- vasodilation takes place to increase blood flow
at rest, what is the average % of CO being delivered to muscles
5L/min with 15-20%
at maximal exercise, what is the average % of CO being delivered to muscles
15-25L/min with 80-85%
at rest, what % of blood is distributed to the brain
15% of the 750cm^3
at maximal exercise, what % of blood is distributed to brain
2.5% of 750cm^3
what are the 2 main functions of the respiratory system
pulmonary ventilation
gaseous exchange
what are the alveoli
clusters of tiny air sacs covered in a dense network of capillaries
- external site of GE
what is gaseous exchange
the movement of oxygen from the alveoli into the blood stream and carbon dioxide from the blood stream into the alveoli
what is the process of the respiratory system
- air enters nasal cavity and is filtered by ciliated cells as it travels pharynx,larynx and then trachea
- air divides down left and right branchi as entering lung cavity
- air travels across smaller bronchioles towards the alveolar ducts
- air enters the alveoli
-O2 moves from the alveoli to the blood stream via diffusion
how is oxygen transported around the body
97% combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin
3% dissolves with the blood plasma
how is carbon dioxide transported around the body
70% dissolved into water and is carried as carbonic acid
23% combines with haemoglobin to for carbaminohaemoglobin
7% dissolved in blood plasma
oxygen diffusion process during exercise
during exercise, the muscles need more oxygen
- due to increased breathing rate, there is a higher conc of oxygen in the alveoli
- this increases the conc gradient between the alveoli and the blood
- due to this, more oxygen diffuses into blood and the rate of diffusion increases
what is breathing frequency
the number of breaths taken per minute
what is tidal volume
volume of air inspired/expired per breath (ml or L)
what is minute ventilation
volume of air inspired or expired per minute (ml or L)
average resting tidal volume
0.5 L
average resting breathing frequency
12-16 per minute
average resting minute ventilation
6-8 Litres
average tidal volume during maximal exercise
3-5 Litres
average breathing frequency during maximal exercise
40+ per minute
average minute ventilation during maximal exercise
200+ litres
average resting tidal volume of an untrained athlete
0.5 L
average resting breathing frequency of an untrained athlete
12-15
average resting minute ventilation of an untrained athlete
5.5-6 L or 6-7.5 L
average tidal volume of an untrained athlete during maximal exercise
2.5 - 3 L
average breathing frequency of an untrained athlete during maximal exercise
40-50 per minute
average minute ventilation of an untrained athlete during maximal exercise
100-150 L per min
average tidal volume of a trained athlete at rest
0.5 L
average breathing frequency of a trained athlete at rest
11-12 per min
average minute ventilation of a trained athlete at rest
5.5-6 L / min
average tidal volume of a trained athlete at maximal exercise
3-3.5 L
average breathing frequency of a trained athlete at maximal exercise
50-60 per min
average minute ventilation of a trained athlete at maximal exercise
160-210 L per min
what are the mechanisms of breathing
- pulmonary pleura attach lungs to the ribs
- as ribs move, this affects the volume and pressure of the thoracic cavity
what are the mechanisms of breathing at rest (inspiration)
- diaphragm contracts and flattens
- external intercostals muscles contract
- rib cage moves up and out
- volume of thoracic cavity increases
- pressure of thoracic cavity decreases
- air moves from a area of high pressure outside of the lungs to an area of low pressure inside the lungs
what are the mechanisms of breathing at rest (expiration)
- diaphragm relaxes and returns to natural/original dome shape
- external intercostals muscles relax
- rib cage moves down and inwards
- volume of thoracic cavity decreases
- pressure of thoracic cavity increases
- air moves from a area of high pressure inside of the lungs to an area of low pressure outside the lungs
what are the mechanisms of breathing during exercise ( inspiration)
- diaphragm contracts and flattens more than at rest
- external intercostals muscles contract more than at rest
- adiitional muscles are recruited to create a larger contraction force -> sternpcleidomastoid, pectoralis minor and scalenes
- rib cage moves up and out further than at rest
- volume of thoracic cavity increases more than at rest
- pressure of thoracic cavity decreases more than at rest
- air moves from a area of high pressure outside of the lungs to an area of low pressure inside the lungs
why are addition muscles recruited during inspiration and expiration whilst doing exercise
to create a larger contraction force (up and out / down and in) for the rib cage and sternum
what three additional muscles are recruited during inspiration at ME
- sternocleidomastoids
- scalenes
- pectoralis minor
what two muscles are recruited during expiration at ME
- rectus abdominals
- internal intercostals
what is the RCC
Respiratory Control Centre
- control centre in Medulla Ob. responsible for respiratory regulation
what is the IC
inspiratory centre
- responsible for inspiration
What is the EC
expiratory centre
- responsible for expiration
Inspiratory system at rest
- sends impulse via phenric nerve (diaphragm) & intercostal nerve
- muscle contracts
- pressure decrease in Thoracic cavity
(when this stim stops,muscles relax) - ribs and sternum lower
- pressure increase in thoracic cavity
- air has been inspired
- lung tissue recoils, causing passive expiration
- process repeats 12-15 times a min
what mechanisms activates the RCC
chemical and neural control
what happens during chemical control for RCC
detects increased acidity in the blood and sends impulses to ICC to increases inspiration to regulate/ balance blood acidity
what happens during neural control for RCC
- proprioreceptors detect moment in the joints and signal an increases in inspiration rates
- thermoreceptors detects and increases in temp which signal increase in respiration rate
- baroreceptors detect stretch in the lungs which signal an increase in expiration
how do the mechanism if neural control cause changes to mechanics of breathing during exercise
- ribs move up and out further than at rest
- there is an increased stimulation of intercostal muscles
- more air into lungs therefore more inspiration
- contraction of diaphragm is harder
- all receptors stimulate RCC to increasing inspiration and expiration rates
what happens when ribs move up and out
lung capacity increases therefore increasing inspiration and expiration rates bc lungs can hold more air
direction of diffusion in internal respiration
the capillaries to the muscle tissues
direction of diffusion in external respiration
capillaries to alveoli
what is the resting partial pressure of O2 during external respiration in the alveoli
105
what is the resting partial pressure of O2 during external respiration in the capillaries
40
what is the resting partial pressure of CO2 during external respiration in the alveoli
40
what is the resting partial pressure of CO2 during external respiration in the capillaries
46
in what direction does O2 travel during external respiration
alveoli to capillaries
in what direction does O2 travel during external respiration
alveoli to capillaries
in what direction does CO2 travel during external respiration
capillaries to alveoli
what is the resting partial pressure of O2 during internal respiration in the muscle cell
40
what is the resting partial pressure of O2 during internal respiration in the capillaries
100
what is the resting partial pressure of CO2 during internal respiration in the muscle cell
46
what is the resting partial pressure of CO2 during internal respiration in the capillaries
40
in what direction does O2 travel during internal respiration
blood capillaries to muscle cell tissues
in what direction does CO2 travel during internal respiration
muscle cell tissues to blood capillaries
