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PE Y1 > anatomy + physiology > Flashcards

anatomy + physiology Flashcards

1
Q

what is a joint?

A

where two or more bones are connected/ where they meet

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2
Q

what is the purpose of synovial joints

A

they allow free movements

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3
Q

what are the 5 main features of a synovial joint

A

ligament
synovial fluid
articular cartilage
joint capsule
bursa

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4
Q

what is a ligament

A

a tough band of slightly elastic connective tissue

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5
Q

what is the function of ligament

A

it connects bone to bone & stabalises joints during movement

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6
Q

what is synovial fluid

A

a lubricating liquid contained within the joint cavity

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7
Q

what is the function of the synovial fluid

A

it helps reduced friction & nourishes the articulate cartilage

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8
Q

what is articular cartilage

A

smooth tissue which covers the surface of articulating bones

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9
Q

what is the function of articular cartilage

A

absorb shock & allows friction free movement

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10
Q

what is the joint capsule

A

a fibrous sac with an inner synovial membrane

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11
Q

what is the function of the joint capsule

A

encloses & strengthens the joint secreting synovial fluid

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12
Q

what is a bursa

A

a closed, fluid filled sac found where tendons rub over bones

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13
Q

what is the function of a bursa

A

reduces friction between tendons and bones

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14
Q

what is a hinge joint

A

a joint that only allows movement in one direction

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15
Q

structure of a hinge joint

A

shallow cap, shallow curve

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16
Q

movement of a hinge joint

A

extension and flexion

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17
Q

what is extension

A

when the angle of a joint increases

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18
Q

what is flexion

A

when the angle of a joint decreases

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19
Q

examples of hinge joints

A

elbow joint
knee joint
ankle joint

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20
Q

what is plantar flexion

A

when toes point towards the floor during ankle hinge joint movements

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21
Q

what is dorsi flexion

A

when toes point towards the persons knees during ankle hinge joint movements

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22
Q

example of plantar flexion

A

high jump, calf raises

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23
Q

example of dorsi flexion

A

squat

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24
Q

what is a ball & socket joint

A

when movement can happen in all direction

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25
Q

structure of a ball & socket joint

A

deep cap, round ball

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26
Q

movement in ball & socket joint

A

abduction, adduction, extension, flexion, circumduction, rotation

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27
Q

example of ball & socket joints

A

hip joint
shoulder joint

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28
Q

what are the two types of rotation

A

medial & lateral

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29
Q

what is medial rotation

A

when the movement is towards the midline of the body

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30
Q

example of medial rotation

A

forehand in tennis

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31
Q

what is lateral rotation

A

when the movement is away from the midline of body

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32
Q

what is lateral rotation

A

when the movement is away from the midline of body

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33
Q

example of lateral rotation

A

backhand in tennis

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34
Q

what is abduction

A

when a sideways movement is made away from the midline of the body

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35
Q

what is adduction

A

when a sideways movement is made towards the midline of the body

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36
Q

what is circumduction

A

when a circular movement takes place within a joint

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37
Q

what are the 5 Types of synovial joints

A

hinge
ball and socket
condyloid
gliding
pivot

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38
Q

examples of hinge joints

A

elbow
knee
ankle

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39
Q

example of ball and socket joints

A

hip
shoulder

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40
Q

examples of condyloid joints

A

wrist
finger

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41
Q

example of gliding joint

A

wrist carpals
ankle tarsals

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42
Q

example of pivot joint

A

atlas and axis in the neck

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43
Q

what is an antagonistic muscle pair

A

2 muscles that oppose eachother to create movement
(one contracts, the other relaxes)

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44
Q

what is an agonist muscle

A

muscle that contracts and shortens
- muscle that initiates the primary movement and is the prime mover

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45
Q

what is an antagonist muscle

A

the muscle that relaxes and lengthens
- the muscle that opposes the movement of the agonist muscle

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46
Q

what are the two types of contractions

A

isotonic & isometric

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47
Q

what is isotonic contractions

A

when the muscle changes length as the contraction is creating a force and movement is created

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48
Q

what is isometric contractions

A

when the muscle changes length as the contraction is creating a force but no movement is created

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49
Q

what are the two types of isotonic contractions

A

concentric and eccentric

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50
Q

what is a isotonic concentric contraction

A

when the muscle contracts and shortens

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51
Q

what is an isotonic eccentric contraction

A

when the muscle contracts and lengthens producing tension during movement

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52
Q

example of concentric contraction

A

biceps brachii during the upwards phase of a bicep curl

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53
Q

example of eccentric contraction

A

biceps brachii during the downwards phase of a bicep curl controlling the bar and resisting forces such as gravity

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54
Q

what are the three planes of movement

A

frontal
sagittal
transverse

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55
Q

what is the frontal plane of movement

A

when the body is split into back and front halves

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56
Q

examples of frontal plane movements

A

cartwheel / star jump

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57
Q

what is action potential

A

a process where the nerve impulse is conducted down the axon to the motor end plate

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58
Q

what is the neuromuscular junction

A

where the axon motor end plate meets the muscle fibres

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59
Q

what is the synaptic cleft

A

the gap between the end plate and the muscle fibre

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60
Q

what is the all or none law

A

if the ACH threshold is not met when the hormone meets the fibers- a contraction will not take place

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61
Q

explain the process of a motor unit causing muscle contraction

A
  • electrochemical impulse from CNS travel to neurone
  • impulse transported across axon towards action potential
  • muscle gets triggered & ACH neurotransmitter is secreted
  • release of NA into axon causes depolarisation (from secretion)
  • impulse travels to synaptic cleft and crosses the synapse to the muscle fibres
  • threshold if met for ACH, contraction takes place
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62
Q

what are the three types of muscle fibres

A

type 1 - slow oxidative
type 2a - fast oxidative glycolytic
type 2b - fast glycolytic

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63
Q

what are slow oxidative fibres

A

fibres that produce small amounts of force for each contraction over a long period of time
- resist fatigue
- designed to store oxygen and process o2 to mitochondria
- work aerobically

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64
Q

what are fast oxidative glycolytic fibres

A

fibres that produce a large amount of force quickly
-resist fatigie

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65
Q

what are fast glycolytic fibres

A

fibres that produce a large amount of force
- fatigue quickly
- large stores if phosphocreatine for immediate energy
- anaerobic

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66
Q

what activities are suited for slow oxidative muscle fibres

A

low intensity & long distance

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67
Q

what activities are suited to fast glycolytic muscle fibres

A

high intensity short duration ie 100m sprint

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68
Q

what activities are more suited to fast oxidative glycolytic muscle fibres

A

high intensity long duration sports ie 800m

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69
Q

how is slow oxidative muscle fibres recovery

A

used for sub maximal exercise
- very quick (90 seconds)
- work:relief is 1:1/ 1:1.5
- minimal fibre damage

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70
Q

how is fast glycolytic muscle fibres recovery

A

used when muscles exhausted
- 2- 20 seconds
- 4 to 10 days of recovery
- work:relief is 1:3

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71
Q

how is blood transported to the muscles

A

via the systematic circulatory system - oxygenated blood travels from the heart to muscle tissue

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72
Q

what is the conduction system

A

a set of five structures that pass an electrical impulse through the heart

73
Q

what are the five structures in the conduction system

A
  • sinoatrial node
  • atrioventricular node
  • bundle of his
  • bundle branches
  • purkinje fibres
74
Q

what is the process of the conduction system

A
  • SAN generates an electrical impulse which travels through the atrium walls, causing atrial systole
  • AVN collects the impulse and a small delay occurs before the impulse is sent to the bundle of his.
    _ the bundle of his will conduct this impulse across its branches until it reaches the purkinje fibres
  • the purkinje fibres will conduct this impulse causing ventricular systole.
  • there is a small delay where no impulse occurs - this allows atrial diastole to take place as the atria re fills with blood before the process repeats
75
Q

what is cardiac output

A

the amount of blood pumped per min by the heart
- Litres/min

76
Q

what is stroke volume

A

the volume of blood pumped from each ventricle per contraction
- ml

77
Q

what is the average rest CO

A

5 L/min

78
Q

what is the average rest SV

A

70ml

79
Q

what is the average rest HR

A

72 bpm

80
Q

what is bradycardia

A

when an individuals resting HR falls below 60 bpm

81
Q

how to calculate CO

A

Q = SV x HR

82
Q

what is the Heart Rate response to exercise

A

HR will increase w exercise and decrease during rest
- reflects supply and demand of O2 therefore higher heart rate = higher demand of O2 from body

83
Q

what is the stroke volume response to exercise

A

SV will increase linearly to intensity of exercise
- the higher the intensity of exercise, the higher the stroke volume of that individual during exercise

84
Q

what is venus return

A

the return of the blood to the right atria

85
Q

what is starlings law

A

SV dependent on Venous return
- increased Venous return means increased SV
- increased stretch on ventricle therefore higher force of contraction therefore more blood pumped out per beat

86
Q

what are the three main factors affecting activity of the CCC?

A

neural control
hormonal control
intrinsic control

87
Q

what is neural control

A

when the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems send signals to the CCC to stimulate the SA node to help regulate HR through sensory neurones

88
Q

during neural control - what 3 receptors stimulate the CCC

A

proprioceptors
chemoreceptors
baroreceptors

89
Q

what is the role of sensory neurones in neural control

A

to detect changes in the body during exercise to stimulate CCC to stimulate SA node to change HR

90
Q

what do proprioceptors do?

A

detect activity change in the body and send an impulse to the CCC to send impulses to the SA node to increase firing rate therefore increasing HR to provide oxygen and glucose for working muscles

91
Q

what do chemoreceptors do

A

detect chemical imbalances/ changes in the blood (lactic acid/ CO2 blood concentration)and send impulse to CCC to send impulse to SA node to increase firing rate to increased amount of oxygen pumped around the body to decrease chemical imbalance

92
Q

what do baroreceptors do

A

detect changes in blood viscosity and signal CCC to send impulses to SA node to increase HR by increases firing rate which will send blood through the body quicker therefore lowering viscosity

93
Q

what do baroreceptors do

A

detect changes in blood viscosity and signal CCC to send impulses to SA node to increase HR by increases firing rate which will send blood through the body quicker therefore lowering viscosity

94
Q

what happens during the Sympathetic Nervous System

A
  • the CCC receives information from sensory nodes regarding changes in the body
  • CCC sends an impulse down the accelerator nerve to increase the firing rate of the SA node, thus increasing HR, thus more oxygen and glucose delivered to working muscles
95
Q

what is intrinsic control

A

temperature will increase
- this decreases blood viscosity therefore higher blood flow
- (starlings law) venous return increases therefore SV increases bc ventricle elasticity increases therefore more blood enters the ventricles and more blood is pumped out per beat
- increase in strength on contractions more blood needs to be pumped
- increases amount of nerve impulses therefore heart contracts more and HR increases (self stimulates myogenically to increase/decrease heart contractions/HR)

96
Q

what is hormonal control

A

prior to exercise adrenaline is released from adrenal gland
- can increase HR which increases force of ventricular contraction which increases SV
- tells SA node to increase firing rate so more o2 and glucose can be pumped to the working muscles before they start working

97
Q

what happens during parasympathetic nervous system

A

ccc sends impulse down the vagus nerve to decrease the firing of the SA node thus decreasing HR thus decreasing the amount of o2 supplied to muscles

98
Q

what is the vascular system

A

a system that consists of blood vessels and blood that transport nutrients and waste products

99
Q

what body processes (3) does the vascular system help with

A
  • delivery of oxygen and glucose
  • fighting disease
  • temperature regulation
100
Q

what are the three blood vessels in the vascular system

A
  • arteries/ arterioles
  • veins/ venules
  • capillaries
101
Q

what are arterioles

A

smaller arteries w/ a larger layer of smooth muscle in the lumen to allow the lumen diameter to fluctuate

102
Q

what are capillaries

A

single layer cells which penetrate muscles and organ cells which allow for gas exchange

103
Q

what are venules

A

smaller blood vessels that carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart

104
Q

what is venodilation

A

when the vein/ venules widen

105
Q

what is venoconstriction

A

when the vein/venule narrows

106
Q

what is the purpose of venodilation and venoconstriction taking place?

A

helps maintain the slow flow of blood towards the heart

107
Q

what are the 5 venous return mechanisms

A
  • pocket valves
  • muscular pump
  • respiratory pump
  • smooth muscle
  • gravity
108
Q

what are pocket valves

A

one way valve in the vein which prevents backflow of blood

109
Q

what is a muscular pump

A

the contraction of skeletal muscles during exercise which compress the veins forcing blood out

110
Q

what is a respiratory pump

A

as the pressure in the thoracic and the abdominal cavities changes during inspiration and expiration, blood is squeezed back towards the heart

111
Q

what is smooth muscle

A

a layer of smooth muscle in the walls of veins venoconstricts, creating a venomotor tone.
- this maintains pressure in the veins and helps transport blood back to the heart

112
Q

how does gravity affect venous return

A

blood from above the heart will return to the heart due to the help of gravity

113
Q

what is blood pooling

A

the accumalation of blood in the veins due to gravitational pull and lack of VR

114
Q

what is active recovery

A

low intensity activity post exercise to maintain elevated heart & breathing rates (cool downs)

115
Q

what is the vascular shunt mechanism

A

where blood is redistributed to muscles which need it (working muscles)

116
Q

how does the vascular shunt mechanism work

A

Vascular control centre (VCC) receives information from chemoreceptors about an increase in blood acidity and also barorecepetors regarding pressure changes in arterial walls
- vasoconstriction takes place to reduce blood flow
- vasodilation takes place to increase blood flow

117
Q

at rest, what is the average % of CO being delivered to muscles

A

5L/min with 15-20%

118
Q

at maximal exercise, what is the average % of CO being delivered to muscles

A

15-25L/min with 80-85%

119
Q

at rest, what % of blood is distributed to the brain

A

15% of the 750cm^3

120
Q

at maximal exercise, what % of blood is distributed to brain

A

2.5% of 750cm^3

121
Q

what are the 2 main functions of the respiratory system

A

pulmonary ventilation
gaseous exchange

122
Q

what are the alveoli

A

clusters of tiny air sacs covered in a dense network of capillaries
- external site of GE

123
Q

what is gaseous exchange

A

the movement of oxygen from the alveoli into the blood stream and carbon dioxide from the blood stream into the alveoli

124
Q

what is the process of the respiratory system

A
  • air enters nasal cavity and is filtered by ciliated cells as it travels pharynx,larynx and then trachea
  • air divides down left and right branchi as entering lung cavity
  • air travels across smaller bronchioles towards the alveolar ducts
  • air enters the alveoli
    -O2 moves from the alveoli to the blood stream via diffusion
125
Q

how is oxygen transported around the body

A

97% combines with haemoglobin to form oxyhaemoglobin
3% dissolves with the blood plasma

126
Q

how is carbon dioxide transported around the body

A

70% dissolved into water and is carried as carbonic acid
23% combines with haemoglobin to for carbaminohaemoglobin
7% dissolved in blood plasma

127
Q

oxygen diffusion process during exercise

A

during exercise, the muscles need more oxygen
- due to increased breathing rate, there is a higher conc of oxygen in the alveoli
- this increases the conc gradient between the alveoli and the blood
- due to this, more oxygen diffuses into blood and the rate of diffusion increases

128
Q

what is breathing frequency

A

the number of breaths taken per minute

129
Q

what is tidal volume

A

volume of air inspired/expired per breath (ml or L)

130
Q

what is minute ventilation

A

volume of air inspired or expired per minute (ml or L)

131
Q

average resting tidal volume

A

0.5 L

132
Q

average resting breathing frequency

A

12-16 per minute

133
Q

average resting minute ventilation

A

6-8 Litres

134
Q

average tidal volume during maximal exercise

A

3-5 Litres

135
Q

average breathing frequency during maximal exercise

A

40+ per minute

136
Q

average minute ventilation during maximal exercise

A

200+ litres

137
Q

average resting tidal volume of an untrained athlete

A

0.5 L

138
Q

average resting breathing frequency of an untrained athlete

A

12-15

139
Q

average resting minute ventilation of an untrained athlete

A

5.5-6 L or 6-7.5 L

140
Q

average tidal volume of an untrained athlete during maximal exercise

A

2.5 - 3 L

141
Q

average breathing frequency of an untrained athlete during maximal exercise

A

40-50 per minute

142
Q

average minute ventilation of an untrained athlete during maximal exercise

A

100-150 L per min

143
Q

average tidal volume of a trained athlete at rest

A

0.5 L

144
Q

average breathing frequency of a trained athlete at rest

A

11-12 per min

145
Q

average minute ventilation of a trained athlete at rest

A

5.5-6 L / min

146
Q

average tidal volume of a trained athlete at maximal exercise

A

3-3.5 L

147
Q

average breathing frequency of a trained athlete at maximal exercise

A

50-60 per min

148
Q

average minute ventilation of a trained athlete at maximal exercise

A

160-210 L per min

149
Q

what are the mechanisms of breathing

A
  • pulmonary pleura attach lungs to the ribs
  • as ribs move, this affects the volume and pressure of the thoracic cavity
150
Q

what are the mechanisms of breathing at rest (inspiration)

A
  • diaphragm contracts and flattens
  • external intercostals muscles contract
  • rib cage moves up and out
  • volume of thoracic cavity increases
  • pressure of thoracic cavity decreases
  • air moves from a area of high pressure outside of the lungs to an area of low pressure inside the lungs
151
Q

what are the mechanisms of breathing at rest (expiration)

A
  • diaphragm relaxes and returns to natural/original dome shape
  • external intercostals muscles relax
  • rib cage moves down and inwards
  • volume of thoracic cavity decreases
  • pressure of thoracic cavity increases
  • air moves from a area of high pressure inside of the lungs to an area of low pressure outside the lungs
152
Q

what are the mechanisms of breathing during exercise ( inspiration)

A
  • diaphragm contracts and flattens more than at rest
  • external intercostals muscles contract more than at rest
  • adiitional muscles are recruited to create a larger contraction force -> sternpcleidomastoid, pectoralis minor and scalenes
  • rib cage moves up and out further than at rest
  • volume of thoracic cavity increases more than at rest
  • pressure of thoracic cavity decreases more than at rest
  • air moves from a area of high pressure outside of the lungs to an area of low pressure inside the lungs
153
Q

why are addition muscles recruited during inspiration and expiration whilst doing exercise

A

to create a larger contraction force (up and out / down and in) for the rib cage and sternum

154
Q

what three additional muscles are recruited during inspiration at ME

A
  • sternocleidomastoids
  • scalenes
  • pectoralis minor
155
Q

what two muscles are recruited during expiration at ME

A
  • rectus abdominals
  • internal intercostals
156
Q

what is the RCC

A

Respiratory Control Centre
- control centre in Medulla Ob. responsible for respiratory regulation

157
Q

what is the IC

A

inspiratory centre
- responsible for inspiration

158
Q

What is the EC

A

expiratory centre
- responsible for expiration

159
Q

Inspiratory system at rest

A
  • sends impulse via phenric nerve (diaphragm) & intercostal nerve
  • muscle contracts
  • pressure decrease in Thoracic cavity
    (when this stim stops,muscles relax)
  • ribs and sternum lower
  • pressure increase in thoracic cavity
  • air has been inspired
  • lung tissue recoils, causing passive expiration
  • process repeats 12-15 times a min
160
Q

what mechanisms activates the RCC

A

chemical and neural control

161
Q

what happens during chemical control for RCC

A

detects increased acidity in the blood and sends impulses to ICC to increases inspiration to regulate/ balance blood acidity

162
Q

what happens during neural control for RCC

A
  • proprioreceptors detect moment in the joints and signal an increases in inspiration rates
  • thermoreceptors detects and increases in temp which signal increase in respiration rate
  • baroreceptors detect stretch in the lungs which signal an increase in expiration
163
Q

how do the mechanism if neural control cause changes to mechanics of breathing during exercise

A
  • ribs move up and out further than at rest
  • there is an increased stimulation of intercostal muscles
  • more air into lungs therefore more inspiration
  • contraction of diaphragm is harder
  • all receptors stimulate RCC to increasing inspiration and expiration rates
164
Q

what happens when ribs move up and out

A

lung capacity increases therefore increasing inspiration and expiration rates bc lungs can hold more air

165
Q

direction of diffusion in internal respiration

A

the capillaries to the muscle tissues

166
Q

direction of diffusion in external respiration

A

capillaries to alveoli

167
Q

what is the resting partial pressure of O2 during external respiration in the alveoli

A

105

168
Q

what is the resting partial pressure of O2 during external respiration in the capillaries

A

40

169
Q

what is the resting partial pressure of CO2 during external respiration in the alveoli

A

40

170
Q

what is the resting partial pressure of CO2 during external respiration in the capillaries

A

46

171
Q

in what direction does O2 travel during external respiration

A

alveoli to capillaries

172
Q

in what direction does O2 travel during external respiration

A

alveoli to capillaries

173
Q

in what direction does CO2 travel during external respiration

A

capillaries to alveoli

174
Q

what is the resting partial pressure of O2 during internal respiration in the muscle cell

A

40

175
Q

what is the resting partial pressure of O2 during internal respiration in the capillaries

A

100

176
Q

what is the resting partial pressure of CO2 during internal respiration in the muscle cell

A

46

177
Q

what is the resting partial pressure of CO2 during internal respiration in the capillaries

A

40

178
Q

in what direction does O2 travel during internal respiration

A

blood capillaries to muscle cell tissues

179
Q

in what direction does CO2 travel during internal respiration

A

muscle cell tissues to blood capillaries

PE Y1 (7 decks)

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