Anatomy of Memory and Emotion

Question 1

What is declarative/explicit memory?

1. memories which have to be consciously recalled as facts and events
2. memories which require no, or little conscious effort to recall
3. new memories that have a specific function
4. new sensory memories

Answer 1

1. memories which can be consciously recalled as facts and events

Question 2

What is procedural/implicit memory?

1. memories which have to be consciously recalled as facts and events
2. memories which require no, or little conscious effort to recall
3. new memories that have a specific function
4. new sensory memories

Answer 2

2. memories which require no, or little conscious effort to recall
   - acquisition of motor and cognitive skills
   - manifest across a wider range of situations, from learning to ride a bike to reading skills, they are both unconscious and unintentional

Question 3

When talking about declarative/explicit memory, which are memories which have to be consciously recalled such as facts and events, these can be further subdivided into 2 categories?

1. episodic and semantic
2. episodic and classical conditioning
3. perceptual learning and semantic
4. episodic and perceptual learning

Answer 3

episodic and semantic

Question 4

Episodic memory is a subdivision of declarative/explicit memory, which are memories which have to be consciously recalled such as facts and events. What are episodic memories?

1. conscious recollection of personal experiences
2. conscious recall relating to the meaning, understanding and general knowledge
3. conscious effort about languages
4. conscious effort on how to perform daily activities

Answer 4

1. conscious recollection of a personal experience
   * recollections contains information on what has happened** and also **where** and **when it happened

Question 5

Semantic memory is a subdivision of declarative/explicit memory, which are memories which can be consciously recalled such as facts and events. What are semantic memories?

1. conscious recollection of personal experiences
2. conscious recall relating to the meaning, understanding and general knowledge
3. conscious effort about languages
4. conscious effort on how to perform daily activities

Answer 5

1. conscious recall relating to the meaning, understanding and general knowledge
   * concept-based knowledge unrelated to specific experiences

Question 6

When talking about declarative/explicit memory, which are memories which can be consciously recalled as facts and events, this can be further subdivided into 2 categories, episodic and semantic. In episodic this can be further subdivided into 2 categories, what are these?

1. short term and working memory
2. long term and working memory
3. long term and sensory memory
4. sensory and working memory

Answer 6

2. long term and working memory

• working memory = supports temporary storage and maintain internal representations
• long term memory = permanent form of memory

Question 7

When talking about declarative/explicit memory, which are memories which can be consciously recalled as facts and events, this can be further subdivided into 2 categories, episodic and semantic. Semantic memory refers to the memory of meaning, understanding, general knowledge about the world and concept-based knowledge that is unrelated to specific experiences. Research has shown that amnesic patients can be affected, but how?

Answer 7

• they are unable to acquire new vocabulary
• Henry Molaison had temporal lobe removed (including hippocampus), and could no longer remember new words

Question 8

When looking at semantic memory examination, word association tests are often performed. 2 terms used are phonological and categorical fluency, what do these mean?

Answer 8

• phonological fluency = patients asked to recall/remember as many letters as possible in 1 minute (<12 is impaired)
• categorical fluency = patients asked to produce as many responses as possible to a conceptual concept in 1 minute

Question 9

Procedural/implicit memory relates to the acquisition of motor and cognitive skills. These can manifest across a wider range of situations, from learning to ride a bike to reading skills, they are both unconscious and unintentional. What are the 3 phases of this type of learning in order?

1. cognitive, association and autonomous stage
2. understanding, association and autonomous stage
3. cognitive, understanding and autonomous stage
4. cognitive, association and long term application

Answer 9

1. cognitive, association and autonomous stage

• cognitive stage = thinking about the task
• association stage = linking thinking and doing
• autonomous stage = activity becomes natural without thought

Question 10

What is perceptual learning?

1. ability to learn through rehearsal
2. ability to learn through out reading
3. ability to learn through out touch
4. ability to learn through out senses

Answer 10

4. ability to learn through our senses to improve performances
   - for example in the image below, we initially see trees, but after allowing our senses to work we can see Napolean in between the trees
   - this can also be improved once you know the parameters of the test

Question 11

What is classical conditioning, also referred to as the Pavlovian response, using the following terms?

• unconditioned stimulus
• unconditional response
• conditioned stimulus
• conditioned response

Answer 11

• • unconditioned stimulus = food for a dog
• • unconditional response = dogs produces saliva when sees food

DOG HEARS BELL+NO SALIVA = NO CONDITION RESPONSE

• • conditioned stimulus = dog trained to associated bell and food together makes dog produces saliva
• • conditioned response = food is removed, dogs hears bell and still produces saliva

Question 12

What is a key component of the brain that is heavily involved in memory?

1. hippocampus
2. thalamus
3. hypothalamus
4. corpus callosum

Answer 12

1. hippocampus, which mean sea horse due to its shape
   - there are 2 one on each side of the hemispheres

Question 13

The hippocampus is heavily involved in memory. What are examples of the following that the hippocampus plays a key role in:

• episodic memory
• encoding and recollection
• spatial processing

Answer 13

• episodic memory = what you ate for breakfast
• encoding and recollection = life events, information and experiences
• spatial processing = cognitive maps, navigate where cells in the brian activate to help us remember

Question 14

Which lobe is the hippocampus located in?

1. temporal lobe
2. parietal lobe
3. occipital lobe
4. frontal lobe

Answer 14

1. temporal lobe
   - medial aspects

Question 15

There are 6 subunit components of the hippocampus numbered 1-6 in the image below. Use the labels below to identify what each number is, where CA = cornu ammonis.

• • subiculum
• • CA4
• • CA1
• • CA2
• • CA3
• • denate gyrus

Answer 15

1. CA1
2. CA2
3. CA3
4. CA4
5. denate gyrus
6. subiculum

Question 16

The hippocampus has 6 sub-units. 4 of which are the cornu ammonic (CA1-4), named after ammons horn as it looks like a horn, after the egyptian god amon who often appeared in the form of a ram. What is the structure of CA1-4, which is often referred to as the hipposampus proper composed of?

1. mutli-polar pyramidal cells
2. uni-polar pyramidal cells
3. bi-polar pyramidal cells
4. pseudo-polar pyramidal cells

Answer 16

1. mutli-polar pyramidal cells
   - densely packed with pyramidal cells, which possess multiple dendrites

Question 17

The hippocampus has 6 sub-units. 1 of which is called the dentate gyrus, what is this involved in and composed of?

1. pyramidal cells important for episodic memory
2. granular cells important for episodic memory
3. uni-polar neurons important for episodic memory
4. gliomas important for episodic memory

Answer 17

2. granular cells important for episodic memory
   - linked with adult neurogenesis (new neuron formation, where as neurons are generally post-mitotic meaning they cannot create new neurons)

Question 18

Although it is a slow process the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus is one site where new neurons can form, called neurogenesis. Where is the 2nd site that has been located?

1. thalamus
2. frontal cortex
3. thymus
4. olfactory bulb

Answer 18

4. olfactory bulb

Question 19

The hippocampus has 6 sub-units. 1 of which is called the subiculum, which is latin for support. What is this involved in and composed of?

1. pyramidal cells involved in plasticity and hippocampus input
2. pyramidal cells involved in plasticity and hippocampus output
3. granular cells involved in plasticity and hippocampus output
4. granular cells involved in plasticity and hippocampus input

Answer 19

2. pyramidal cells involved in plasticity and hippocampus output
   - important for plasticity essentially response in function and morphology due to interactions around it
   - area where plasticity is high is the hippocampal-subicular axis
   - main output source of the hippocampus

Question 20

Where does the hippocampus receive its input from?

1. cerebral cortex
2. thalamus
3. hypothalamus
4. motor cortex

Answer 20

1. cerebral cortex [prefrontal, cingulate, temporal lobe and amygdala, olfactory bulb].
   - these project via entorhinal cortex and into the hippocampus via the subiculum

Question 21

The hippocampus receive input from the cerebral cortex [prefrontal, cingulate, temporal lobe and amygdala, olfactory bulb]. This input then projects via entorhinal cortex and into the hippocampus via the subiculum. What is the entorhinal cortex involved in?

1. pain, navigation and time perception
2. memory, navigation and time perception
3. memory, navigation and emotion
4. memory, pain and time perception

Answer 21

2. memory, navigation and time perception

Question 22

The the hippocampus has a significant role to play in memory. Once it has received its inputs from cerebral cortex (prefrontal, cingulate, temporal lobe and amygdala, olfactory bulb) how does it transmit its outputs?

1. dentate gyrus
2. CA1
3. CA2
4. subiculum

Answer 22

4. subiculum

Question 23

The the hippocampus has a significant role to play in memory. Once it has received its inputs from cerebral cortex (prefrontal, cingulate, temporal lobe and amygdala, olfactory bulb) it transmit its outputs via the subiculum. Where do the outputs of the hippocampus travel to?

Answer 23

• prefrontal cortex, amygdala, septal nuclei, nucleus accumbens [NAc], mammillary bodies, thalamus, hypothalamus
• fornix which is a major output pathway

Question 24

The hippocampus is composed of a number of complex connections. What does the perforant pathway connect?

Answer 24

• hippocampus and entorhinal cortex

Question 25

The hippocampus is composed of a number of complex connections. What do the schaffer collaterals connect?

Answer 25

- Cornu Ammonis 1 (CA1) and CA3

Question 26

The hippocampus is composed of a number of complex connections. What do the mossy fibres connect?

Answer 26

- grey matter fibres - connect denate gyrus with Cornu Ammonis 3

Question 27

The hippocampus is composed of a number of complex connections. What do pyramidal cells connect?

Answer 27

- multipole connections throughout the hippocampus

Question 28

The hippocampus is composed of a number of complex connections. What do granule cells connect?

Answer 28

- connections within the Dentate Gurus - area where neurogenesis can occur, but slowly

Question 29

If the hippocampus has been damaged what are the 3 most common signs patients can present with? 1. amnesia, chronic pain, regulatory problems 2. impaired spatial navigation, chronic pain, regulatory problems 3. antegrade amnesia, chronic pain, regulatory problems 4. amnesia, impaired spatial navigation, regulatory problems

Answer 29

4. amnesia, impaired spatial navigation, regulatory problems * amnesia (anterograde memory loss of new information) * impaired spatial navigation * regulatory problems (circadian rhythm, sleep, impulse control is impaired)

Question 30

When we talk about retrograde and anterograde amnesia what do we mean?

Answer 30

- retrograde (backwards) = difficulty recalling old stored memories - anterograde (forwards) = difficulty recalling new and making new memories

Question 31

What are the 5 most common causes of damage to the hippocampus?

Answer 31

1. hypoxia 2. epilepsy 3. neurodegenerative disorders 4. infection 5. stress/depression [+/- neurogenesis]

Question 32

There are other cortices (location in the cortex) in the brain that contribute towards memory, what are the 4 biggest, not including the hippocampus?

Answer 32

- dorsolateral prefrontal cortex = working memory; requires effort - parahippocampal gyrus = recognition memory, places - further temporal cortices = categorical memory, word recognition, objects, people, faces - association cortices = semantic memory

Question 33

The amygdala is associated with memory, specifically what aspects of memory? 1. pain and fear conditioning 2. sadness and fear conditioning 3. reward and fear conditioning 4. joy and fear conditioning

Answer 33

3. reward association, fear conditioning / learning of threat * emotional enhancement of episodic (recall episodes from ones past) memory * why specific events can be really emotional

Question 34

The mammillary bodies (groups of nuclei) and the fornix are associated with memory, specifically what aspects of memory? 1. new memories encoding and consolidation 2. new happy memories and consolidation 3. retrieval of old memories and consolidation 4. retrieval of sensory stimulus and consolidation

Answer 34

1. new memories encoding and consolidation * papez circuit (implicated in expression of emotions)

Question 35

Emotions are defined by the perception of an emotive stimulus. This can lead to 2 types of physiological response, what are they? 1. autonomic arousal response (fight or flight) and behavioural 2. expressions and autonomic arousal response 3. behaviour and subjective feelings (mood, temperament) 4. expressions and subjective feelings (mood, temperament)

Answer 35

2. expressions and autonomic arousal response

Question 36

Emotion is defined by the perception of an emotive stimulus. In addition to the physiological response, this can lead to 2 other key features, what are they? 1. autonomic arousal response (fight or flight) and behavioural 2. expressions and autonomic arousal response 3. behaviour and subjective feelings (mood, temperament) 4. expressions and subjective feelings (mood, temperament)

Answer 36

3. behaviour and subjective feelings (mood, temperament)

Question 37

What 2 secondary vesicles make up the limbic system? 1. telencephalon and diencephalon 2. telencephalon and mesencephalon 3. diencephalon and metencephalon 4. diencephalon and myelencephalon

Answer 37

1. telencephalon and diencephalon (essentially the forebrain)

Question 38

The limbic system is the emotional centre of the brain. Using the labels below, label the numbers 1-7 in the image: * - hippocampus (telencephalon) * - cingulate cortex (telencephalon) * - thalamus (diencephalon) * - fornix (telencephalon) * - amygdala (telencephalon) * - hypothalamus (diencephalon) * - mammillary bodies (diencephalon)

Answer 38

1. cingulate cortex (telencephalon) 2. fornix (telencephalon) 3. thalamus (diencephalon) 4. hypothalamus (diencephalon) 5. mammillary bodies (diencephalon) 6. amygdala (telencephalon) 7. hippocampus (telencephalon)

Question 39

What does limbic mean?

Answer 39

- latin for borders - limbic system crosses the borders of the telencephalon and diencephalon

Question 40

What is the amygdala?

Answer 40

- almond shape composed of nuclei - located in the raustral medial aspect of the temportal lobe

Question 41

The amygdala has 4 components, what are these called?

Answer 41

1 - basolateral complex (basal and lateral nucleus) 2 - central nucleus 3 - basal nucleus 4 - medial nucleus

Question 42

The amygdala has 4 components, basolateral complex (basal and lateral nucleus), central nucleus, basal nucleus and the medial nucleus. What is the function of the basolateral complex? 1. sensory input and associative learning 2. processing of pain 3. long term memory 4. co-ordination

Answer 42

1. sensory input and associative learning (conditioning)

Question 43

The amygdala has 4 components, basolateral complex (basal and lateral nucleus), central nucleus, basal nucleus and the medial nucleus. What is the function of the central nucleus? 1. sensory input and associative learning 2. processing of pain 3. long term memory 4. co-ordination

Answer 43

2. processing of pain

Question 44

The amygdala is associated with threat detection and feat reactions. What can this cause physiologically?

Answer 44

- sympathetic response - increased heart rate, sweating, fight or flight

Question 45

The amygdala is associated with fear conditioning. What is this linked with learning wise?

Answer 45

- pavlovian learning - consider evolutionary benefit of survival, social cohesion, outgroups vs ingroups

Question 46

The amygdala is associated with emotional enhancement of memory. What does this mean?

Answer 46

* emotional weight can be attached to memories * a memory of someone dying can be really emotional

Question 47

The amygdala is associated with smelling, what is this called?

Answer 47

- olfaction

Question 48

In addition to the limbic system there are 3 key cortices (parts of the cerebral cortex) that are associated with emotion. What are the names?

Answer 48

1 - dorsal anterior cingulate 2 - subgenual anterior cingulate cortex 3 - insular cortex

Question 49

In addition to the amygdala and a number of cortices there are subcortical structures that are associated with memory. What are the key 4?

Answer 49

1 - striatum (basal nuclei) 2 - ventral striation 3 - hypothalamus/pituatory 4 - brainstem

Question 50

When we talk about the hippocampus, the term ‘hippocampus proper’ is often used. What is the hippocampus proper?

Answer 50

* the 4 parts of the cornu ammonis CA1 - CA4

Question 51

The dentate gyrus is part of the hippocampus. Why is the dentate gyrus such an important part which has received considerable attention?

Answer 51

* site for adult neurogenesis * new development of neurons

Question 52

The dentate gyrus is part of the hippocampus. The dentate gyrus is an important part which has received considerable attention as it is a site for adult neurogenesis (new development of neurons) and is closely linked with the subventricular zone, which is the site for neuron proliferation (see image below). What affect can chronic levels of cortisol such as those seen in chronic stress have on the dentate gyrus?

Answer 52

* excessive cortisol causes excitotoxicity (Ca2+) in hippocampus * hippocampus atrophies as a result, so no new neurogenesis

Question 53

Place cells are a kind of pyramidal neuron within the hippocampus. What is the importance of these cells in the hippocampus, keeping in mind the main role of the hippocampus involves memory?

Answer 53

* these are activated when you enter a location that you recognise, known as a cognitive map * important for spacial processing and navigation

Question 54

If the hippocampus is damaged or even lost, what can this lead to?

Answer 54

* memory loss * amnesia * reduced spatial awareness

Question 55

If the hippocampus is damaged or even lost, this can lead to memory loss. This can be antro or retrograde. What is the difference between antro and retrograde memory loss?

Answer 55

* antrograde (forward) = inability to remember new memories * retrograde (backwards) = inability to recall old memories

Question 56

The mammillary bodies are a **pair of small round bodies**, located on the undersurface of the brain that, as part of the diencephalon, form part of the limbic system. They are located at the ends of the anterior arches of the fornix. What is their primary function?

Answer 56

* recollective memory * memory information begins within the hippocampus * theta waves activate CA3 neurons in the hippocampus and transmits through the fornix to the mammillary bodies