Anatomy And Physiology Flashcards
Functions of the skeleton
SUPPORT - for the body, giving the shape
PROTECTION - of internal organs (skull/brain)
MOVEMENT - through muscle attachment onto bone
PRODUCTION - red and white blood cells are produced in the bone marrow
STORAGE - minerals, particularly calcium and phosphate are stored in long bones
Ossification
Foetus starts with bones made of cartilage which gradually ossify. After ossification bone has a hard compact outer layer with a honeycomb centre. A baby has 350 bones which gradually fuse together and by 25 adults will have 206 bones
Long bones
STRUCTURE - greater length than width and slightly curved for strength e.g. femur
Short bones
STRUCTURE - nearly equal in length and width, spongy bone with an outer covering of compact bone
FUNCTION - great strength but less mobile
Flat bones
STRUCTURE - thin bone providing considerable protection and large area for muscle attachment. Spongy bone sandwiched with compact bone
FUNCTION - attachment of muscles and protection of organs
Irregular bones
STRUCTURE - complex shapes, spongy bone covered with compact bone
FUNCTION - protects internal organs and supports
Sesamoid bones
STRUCTURE - situated in a tendon
FUNCTION - protect tendons when in close proximity to other bones
The 2 types of tissue
Bone and Cartilage
Bone
Made up of approximately 25-30% water and 60-70% minerals and the remainder is collagen. It is a living tissue with a blood supply and is capable of growth and regeneration
Cartilage
A smooth. Tough structure that helps form the skeleton in children. In adults it is found at the end of bones. It provides shock absorption and enables bones to glide smoothly
The shaft
A hollow tube of dense, compact bone covered by a hard outer casing
Structure of long bone - the periosteum
A thin membrane providing a hard outer casing covering the whole bone
Structure of a long bone - the epiphysis
The spherical end of the bone, less dense spongy bone covered by particular cartilage
Structure of a long bone - particular cartilage
Covering the epiphysis, adding strength at the joints and providing a smooth joint surface
Joints
Where 2 or more bones meet and held together at a joint by ligaments
Immovable/fibrous/fixed joint
Where 2 bones meet but there is no movement e.g. structures of the skull
Slightly movable/cartilaginous joint
Joints where there is a degree of “give” between two adjacent bones, connected by a ligament and cartilage e.g. between the ribs and sternum
Freely movable/synovial joint
These joints have free movement according to the design of the joint due to space between the bones called a joint cavity. They are lubricated with synovial fluid and the end of the bone is covered by articular cartilage
Hinge joint
A convex surface fits a concave surface - movement is only possible on one plane e.g. knees
Ball and socket
The rounded head of the bone fits into a cup like socket of the other allowing a wide range of movement
Saddle joint
The reciprocally curved surfaces of 2 bones fit together. Wide range of movement combining flexion and extension with rotation e.g. base of thumb
Pivot joint
A peg rotates in the socket allowing movement round one axis e.g. nexk
Condylold joint
A reduced ball and socket allowing flexion and extension e.g. wrist
Gliding joint
Two flat surfaces gliding across each other e.g. metacarpals, metatarsals
Growth spurt in children
When bones in children suddenly develop at a rapid rate.
Girls - starts between 10-12 with most growth between 12/13
Boys - starts between 12-14 with most growth between 14/15
Cardiac muscle
Drives the pumping action of the heart, we have no ability to control the heart beat so it is an involuntary muscle
Ligaments
Strong connective tissue which connects BONE TO BONE
Also prevents unwanted movement and gives joints their stability
Tendons
A fibrous cord composed of collagen fibres which attach MUSCLE TO BONE
Muscles
Muscles take many shapes and forms and the shape indicates its function. They are responsible for every move we make.
Involuntary muscle
Smooth muscle fibres found in the gut and intestines.
Works without our conscious control to push food through the digestive system
Voluntary muscle
Skeletal muscle is voluntary with having conscious control over the majority of movements.
This type of muscle contracts when stimulated by nerve impulses in the brain
Structure of a muscle
The central part is made up of bundles of fibres, surrounded by connective tissue.
Skeletal muscle consists of two proteins called actin and myosin
Muscle is attached to bone by tendons but can also attach directly.
Muscle action
The size of the muscle doesn’t indicate its strength.
Muscles rarely work alone but work together to perform movement and often in opposing pairs - as one muscle contracts e.g. bicep to bend the elbow, the opposing muscle relaxes e.g. tricep
Biceps
Positioned at the front of the upper arm and originates at the scapula and inserts at the radius, contracts when the elbow bends
Tricep
A three headed muscle positioned at the back of the arm and originates from the scapula and humerus and inserts at the ulna. Contracts when the elbow is straight
Trapezius
Diamond shaped muscle of upper back and neck and originates from either side of the cervical and thoracic vertebrae and the base of the skull and inserts at the clavicle and scapula.
Involved in shoulder elevation and scapula rotation
Deltoids
At the top of the shoulder and originates at the clavicle and scapula and inserts at the upper humerus. It lifts the arms forward, back or to the sides
Rhomboids
Positioned between the shoulder blades, originates at the cervical and thoracic vertebrae and inserts at the scapula. Squeezes the shoulder blades together and rotates them.
Erector spinae group
A series of muscle groups that extend either side of the spine. Originates at the vertebrae, sacrum iliac crest, spinal ligaments. Inserts at: vertebrae, ribs, skull
3 sections can contract separately, straightens the spine
Latissimus Dorsi
A “v” shaped back muscle. Originates at the vertebrae and ribs and inserts at the rear of the upper humerus.
When contracted it brings the arms back and down
Pectoralis major
The main chest muscle and originates in the sternum, clavicle and ribs and inserts at the humerus.
From horizontal arm position when contracted, would bring arm forward
Rectus abdominus
“The six pack”. At the front of the torso that had the tough inscriptions that divide it into several sections. It originated at the pubis and pubis symphysis and inserts at the ribs/sternum
When contracted it bends the spinal column
Obliques
Positioned at the side of the abdomen and have external and internal fibres. Originates at the lower ribs and pelvis and inserts at the crest of the pelvis and mid-line of rectus abdominus.
Contraction of one side causes spinal rotation and side bend movement
Illiopsoas/hip flexor
Two muscles of the groin
Originates at the illium and lumbar vertebrae and inserts at the femur
When contracted it decreases the angle of the hip
Quadriceps
There are 4 muscles of the quadriceps group at the front of the thigh
Originates at the femur, illium
And inserts at the tibia, patella
When contracted will straighten the knee and can assist in hip flexion
Hamstrings
Three muscles make up the hamstrings at the rear of the thigh
Originates at the ischium and femur
Inserts at the tibia and fibula
All three muscles go over back of the knee and can bend the knee joint. Can also extend the hip
Adductors
The muscle group of the inner thigh
Originates at the pubis and ischial tuberosity
And inserts at the femur and tibia
When contracted, these muscles bring the leg towards the centred body
Gluteus maximus
The main muscle of the bottom
Originates at the illium, sacrum
Inserts at the femur
Stabilises the hip, extends it and rotates it outwards
Gluteus minimus and medius
Part of the gluteal group
Originates at the illium
Insters at the femur
Abducts the leg
Gastrocnemius
The calf muscle positioned at the back of the leg
Originates at the femur
Inserts at the Achilles tendon into the heel bone
Powerfully extends the ankles and can lift the body onto the ball of foot
Soleus
Situated deep to the gastrocnemius
Originates at the tibia and fibula
Inserts at the Achilles tendon into the heel bone
Tibialis anterior
The shin muscle next to the tibia
Origin tibia
Insertion at the tarsal bone
When contracted will lift the foot
Two types of muscle contraction
Isometric and isotonic
Isometric contraction
Is a static contraction, there is no visible change in the length of the muscle and no joint movement. E.g. pushing against a wall is an isometric contraction
Isotonic contraction
Is a moving contraction, usually consisting of a concentric and eccentric phase.
Concentric
The muscle develops tension, shortens and thickens, e.g. upward phase of a bicep curl
Eccentric
The muscle retains tension as it lengthens, e.g. lowering phase of a bicep curl
Cardio-respiratory system
The term cardio refers to the heart
The term respiratory refers to the mechanics of breathing
The term vascular refers to the blood vessels
The heart
There are 4 chambers of the heart formed from cardiac muscle. It is supplied with oxygen from the coronary artery and contracts rhythmically to pump blood around the body.
The chambers are: artia (upper chambers) - where blood is collected and ventricles (lower) - where blood is pumped
The right side deals with de-oxygenated blood and the left side is oxygenated.
Cardio-respiratory system order
Vena Cava -> Right Atrium -> Right Ventricle -> Pulmonary Artery -> Lungs -> Pulmonary Vein -> Left Atrium -> Left Ventricle -> Aorta -> Body
Systemic circulation
Circulation between the heart and the rest of the body
Pulmonary circulation
Circulation between the heart and lungs
Blood
Blood transports oxygen, nutrients, waste products and hormones and is made up of: plasma, red blood cells, white blood cells and haemoglobin
Plasma
Accounts for just over half of the blood volume, contains salt, hormones and fats
Red blood cells
Made in the bone marrow and containing haemoglobin
White blood cells
Part of the immune system, to protect from infection
Haemoglobin
Found in the red blood cells, its main function is to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide
3 types of blood vessels
Arteries, veins, and capillaries
Arteries
Carry blood away from the heart. They have thick muscular walls, made up of smooth muscle and connective tissue.
Capillaries
The capillary walls are only one cell in thickness and there is a capillary near to every cell in the body. They are to link between arteries and veins.
Veins
Veins return blood back to the heart. The blood is under less pressure to the veins have much thinner walls.
The respiratory system
This system is concerned with breathing, the movement of air in and out of the lungs. Air enters the lungs through the nose or mouth, it then passes through the pharynx and larynx then into the trachea. The trachea divides into 2 bronchi, one into each lung which then divide into bronchioles that run through the surface area of the lungs. At the end of the bronchioles there are air sacs known as alveoli in which gaseous exchange occurs in the capillaries of these.
Breathing
Should be taken wide and full into the back and sides. The rib cage should expand so the volume of the cavity is increased and the capacity for oxygen intake is therefore increased as well.
The nervous system
The nervous system is made up of the spinal cord, brain, and complex network of nerves. This system sends messages all around the body and allows us to move.
Motor skills are movement patterns known as neuromuscular responses. A motor signal is sent down the motor neurons from the brain. Each nerve is attached to a group of muscle cells which fully contract on stimulation.
The aerobic energy system
This system uses glyogen fuel with oxygen and is the preferred energy system of the body
The anaerobic energy system
This is when muscle exertion is so strenuous that oxygen is used faster than the blood can supply it so the muscles work anaerobically (without oxygen)
