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Finals 2016 > Anatomy > Flashcards

Anatomy Flashcards

1
Q

Types of Blood Cells: Shape

A
  • E: Biconcave Disk
  • L: Irregular
  • T: Fragmented
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2
Q

Types of Blood Cells: Produced where?

A

-E: Bone Marrow
-L: Lymph nodes and spleen
T: Bone Marrow

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3
Q

Types of Blood Cells: Hormones

A
  • E: Erythropoietin
  • L:Thymosin, Interluekin, CSF
  • T: Thrombopoietin
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4
Q

Types of Blood Cells: Nucleated?

A
  • E: None
  • L: Nucleated
  • T: None
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5
Q

Type of Blood Cells: Amount?

A
  • E: 4-6 million mm^3
  • L: 4800-10,000 mm^3
  • T: 150,000-400,000 mm^3
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6
Q

Types of Blood Cells: Function

A
  • E: Transport Blood and Gas
  • L: Protect immune system
  • T: Blood clotting
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7
Q

Types of Blood Cells: Appearance

A
  • E: Salmon colored
  • L: Granular/ Nongranular, clear
  • T: Blue
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8
Q

Types of Blood Cells: Proteins

A
  • E: Hemoglobin
  • L: Antibodies
  • T Fibrogen
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9
Q

Types of Blood Cells: Vitamins

A
  • E: B6, b9, b12
  • L: C, E, A
  • T: K, B9, B12
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10
Q

Types of Blood Cells: Minerals

A
  • E: Iron/copper
  • L: Magnesium
  • T: Calcium
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11
Q

Types of Blood Cells: Conditions (more/less)

A
  • E: Polycythemia/ Anemia
  • L: Leukemia, leukopenia
  • T: Thrombocytosis, Hemophilia
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12
Q

Types of Blood Cells: Life Span

A
  • E: 120 days
  • L: 4-30 days
  • T: 5-10 days
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13
Q

Types of Blood Cells

A
  • Erythrocytes
    • Red Blood Cells
  • Leukocytes
    • White Blood Cells
  • Thrombocytes
    • Platelets
  • Cell Fragments
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14
Q

Types of Blood Cells: Size

A
  • E: 6 mm^3
  • L: 12-15 mm^3
  • T: 2-5 mm^3
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15
Q

Erythrocytes

A
  • Main Function is to carry oxygen
  • Anatomy of Circulating erythrocytes
    • Biconcave discs
    • Essentially bags of hemoglobin
    • No Nucleus
    • Contain very few organelles
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16
Q

Hemoglobin

A
  • Iron-containing protein
  • Binds strongly, but reversible, to oxygen (can release and attracts oxygen)
  • Each hemoglobin molecule has four oxygen binding sites
  • Each erythrocytes has 250 million hemoglobin molecules
  • Normal blood contains 12-18 g of hemoglobin per 100 mL blood
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17
Q

Leukocytes

A
  • Crucial in the body’s defense against disease
  • These are complete cells, with a nucleus and organelles
  • Able to move into and out of blood vessels (diapedesis)
  • Can move by ameboid motion
  • Can respond to chemicals released by damaged tissues
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18
Q

Leukocytosis

A
  • WBC count about 11,000 leukocytes/ mm^3

- Generally indicates and infection

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19
Q

Leukopenia

A
  • Abnormally low leukocyte level

- Commonly caused by certain drugs such as corticosteroid and anticancer agents

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20
Q

Leukemia

A

-Bone marrow becomes cancerous, turns out excess WBC

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21
Q

Granulocytes (Types of Leukocytes)

A
  • Granules in their cytoplasm can be stained
  • Posses lobed nuclei
  • Includes neutrophils, eosinophils,and basophils
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22
Q

Agranulocytes

A
  • Lack of visible cytoplasmic granules
  • Nuclei are spherical, oval, and kidney shaped
  • Include lymphocytes and monocytes
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23
Q

List of White Bloods Cells from Most to Least Abundant

A
  • Neutrophils
  • Lymphocytes
  • Monocytes
  • Eosinophils
  • Basophils
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24
Q

Erythroblastosis Fetalis of the Newborn

A
  • Mom is Rh- and baby is Rh+
  • Babies blood seeps into the mom, antibodies are produced to attack the proteins
  • Baby dies
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25
Q

Types of Leukocytes

A
  • Granulocytes

- Agranulocytes

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26
Q

Types of Granulocytes

A
  • Neutrophils
  • Eosinophils
  • Basophils
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27
Q

Neutrophils

A
  • Multi lobed nucleus with fine granules

- Act as phagocytes at active cites of infection

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28
Q

Eosinophils

A
  • Large brick red cytoplasmic granules

- Found in response to allergies and parasitic worms

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29
Q

Basophils

A
  • Phil= protein
  • Have histamine contains granules
  • Initiates inflammation
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30
Q

Types of Agranulocytes

A
  • Lymphocytes

- Monocytes

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31
Q

Lymphocytes

A
  • Nucleus fills most of the cell

- Play an important role in the immune response

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32
Q

Monocytes

A
  • Largest of the White Blood Cells
  • Function as macrophages
  • Important in fighting chronic infection
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33
Q

Platelets (Thrombocytes)

A
  • Derived from ruptured multinucleate cells (megakaryocytes)
    • Megakaryocytes create thrombocytes
  • Needed for the clotting process
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34
Q

Blood

A
  • The only fluid tissue in the human body
  • Classified as a connective tissue
  • Components:
    • Living cells
      • Formed elements
    • Nonliving matrix
      • Plasma
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35
Q

Physical Characteristics of Blood

A
  • Color range:
    • Oxygen-rich blood is scarlet
    • Oxygen poor blood is dull re
  • pH must remain between 7.35-7.45
  • Blood temperature is slightly higher than body temperature at 100.4 F
  • In a healthy man, blood volume is about 5-6 liters or 6 quarts
  • Makes up 8% of body weight
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36
Q

Blood when Centrifuged

A
  • Erythrocytes sink to the bottom (45% of blood, person known as a hemocrit)
  • Buffy coat contains Leukocytes and platelets (less than 1% of blood)
    • Buffy coat is thin, whitish layer between erythrocytes and plasma
  • Plasma rises to the top (55%)
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37
Q

Blood Plasma

A
  • Composed of 90% water
  • Includes many dissolved substances
    • Nutrients (proteins, lipids, carbs)
    • Salts (electrolytes)
    • Respiratory gases
    • Hormones
    • Plasma Proteins
    • Waste Products
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38
Q

Plasma Proteins

A
  • Most abundant solutes in plasma
    • Most are made by the liver
    • Plasma proteins include
      • Albumin: Regulates osmotic pressure
      • Clotting proteins: help to stem blood loss when a blood vessel is injured
      • Antibodies: Help protect the body from pathogens
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39
Q

Acidosis

A

-Blood becomes too acidic

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40
Q

Alkalosis

A

-Blood becomes too basic

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41
Q

What happens during Acidosis and Alkalosis?

A

-In each scenario, the respiratory system and kidneys help restore pH to a normal level

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42
Q

Hematopoiesis

A
  • Blood cell formation
  • Occurs in bone marrow
  • All blood cells are derived from a common stem cell (hemocytoblasts)
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43
Q

Formation of Erythrocytes

A
  • Unable to divide, grow, or synthesize proteins
  • When wore out (die), RBCs are eliminated by phagocytes in the spleen or liver
  • Lost cells are replaced by division of hemocytoblasts
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44
Q

Control of Erythrocytes

A
  • Rate is controlled by a hormone (erythropoietin)
  • Kidneys produce most erythropoietin as a response to reduced oxygen levels in the blood
  • Homeostasis is maintained by negative feedback from blood oxygen levels
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45
Q

Formation of White Blood Cells and Platelets

A
  • Controlled by hormones
    • Colony stimulating factors (CSF) and interleukins prompt bone marrow to generate Leukocytes
    • Thrombopoietin stimulates production of platelets
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46
Q

Hemostasis

A
  • Stoppage of bleeding resulting from a break in a blood vessel
  • Involves 3 phases:
    • Vascular spasms (parasympathetic nervous system)
    • Platelet plug formation
    • Coagulation (blood clotting)
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47
Q

Vascular Spasms

A
  • Vasoconstriction causes blood vessel to spasm (parasympathetic nervous system)
  • Spasms narrow blood vessel, decreasing blood loss
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48
Q

Epithalamus

A
  • Forms the roof of the third ventricle
    • Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
    • Includes the choroid plexus—forms cerebrospinal fluid
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49
Q

Gyruses vs. Sulcuses

A
  • Both make up surface of the brain
    • Ridges= Gyruses
      • Precentral Gyrus
    • Grooves= Sulcuses
      • Ex: Central Sulcus
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50
Q

Concussion

A
  • Slight brain injury

- No permanent brain damage

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51
Q

Contusion

A
  • Nervous tissue destruction occurs

- Nervous tissue does not regenerate

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52
Q

Cerebral Edema

A
  • Swelling from the inflammatory response

- May compress and kill brain tissue

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53
Q

Cerebrovascular Accident

A
  • Stroke
    • Commonly called a stroke
    • The result of a ruptured blood vessel supplying a region of the brain
    • Brain tissue supplied with oxygen from that blood source dies
    • Loss of some functions or death may result
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54
Q

Alzheimer’s Disease

A
  • Progressive degenerative brain disease
    • Mostly seen in the elderly, but may begin in middle age
    • Structural changes in the brain include abnormal protein deposits and twisted fibers within neurons
    • Victims experience memory loss, irritability, confusion, and ultimately, hallucinations and death
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55
Q

Lobes of the Brain

A
  • Frontal:Motor area
    • Occipital: Visual area
    • Temporal: Auditory and Olfactory
    • Parietal: Primary somatosensory area
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56
Q

Regions of the Brain

A
  • Cerebrum
  • Cerebellum
  • Diencephalon
  • Brain Stem
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57
Q

Cerebrum

A
  • more than half of the brain mass
  • made of ridges (gyri) and grooves (sulci)
  • composed of four regions: frontal, parietal, occipital, and temporal lobes
  • Gray matter: outer layer made up of cell bodies (fibers are Unmylinated axons)
  • White matter: fibers deep in the gray matter (Fibers are myelinated axons)
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58
Q

Diencephalon

A
  • Sits of the brainstem
  • Made of the thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus
  • Relay station for sensory impulses
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59
Q

Brain Stem

A
  • attaches to the spinal cord

- Made of the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata

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60
Q

Cerebellum

A
  • two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces

- Provides involuntary coordination of voluntary movements.

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61
Q

Function of the Brain

A
  • part of the CNS
  • the brain has interneurons that work to integrate information
  • decide if a response to sensory information is needed
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62
Q

Protection of the Brain

A
  • Meninges
  • Bone
  • Capillaries
  • Blood-Brain Barrier
  • CSF
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63
Q

Meninges

A
  • The Three Layers
    - Dura Mater
    - Double-layered external covering
    - Periosteum—attached to inner surface of the skull
    - Meningeal layer—outer covering of the brain
    - Folds inward in several areas
  • Arachnoid Layer
    - Middle layer
    - Web-like
      - Pia Mater
      - Internal layer
      - Clings to the surface of the brain
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64
Q

Capillaries

A
  • Allow water, glucose,and essential amino acids to pass from blood to the brain
    - Keeps metabolic wastes, toxins, proteins, and most drugs from getting into brain tissue
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65
Q

Blood-Brain Barrier

A
  • Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
    - Excludes many potentially harmful substances
    - Useless as a barrier against some substances
    - Fats and fat soluble molecules
    - Respiratory gases
    - Alcohol
    - Nicotine
    - Anesthesia
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66
Q

Cerebrospinal Fluid

A
  • Similar to blood plasma composition
    - Formed by the choroid plexus
    - Forms a watery cushion to protect the brain
    - Circulated in arachnoid space, ventricles, and central canal of the spinal cord
    - Hydrocephalus
    - CSF accumulates and exerts pressure on the brain if not allowed to drain
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67
Q

Pons

A
  • Controls breathing

- Also controls circadian rhythms

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68
Q

Thalamus

A
  • Relay station for sensory impulses passing upwards to the sensory cortex
  • “sensory switchboard” of the brain; deals with all sense except for smell that gets routed to the limbic system
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69
Q

Hypothalamus

A
  • Plays a role in regulating body temperature, water balance, and metabolism
    - Center of many drives and emotions
  • The reward center of the brain
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70
Q

Cerebral Aqueduct

A
  • the slender cavity of the midbrain

- connects the third and fourth ventricles.

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71
Q

Choroid Plexus

A
  • Forms Cerebrospinal Fluid

- Plexus: a bundle of nerves

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72
Q

Pineal Gland

A
  • Produces melatonin
  • helps maintain circadian rhythm
  • regulates reproductive hormones
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73
Q

Mammillary Body

A

-Reflex center involved with olfaction (smell)

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74
Q

Corpora Quadrigemina

A

-Reflex centers for vision and hearing

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75
Q

Cerebral Peduncle of the Midbrain

A

-Convey ascending and descending impulses

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76
Q

Medulla Oblongata

A
  • “Med-ic” of the body
  • Most vital part of the brain
  • Controls many major functions of the body VITAL REFLEXES
    - Heart Rate
    - Blood Pressure
    - Breathing
    - Swallowing
    - Vomiting
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77
Q

Pituitary Gland

A
  • the most influential gland in the endocrine system controlled by the hypothalamus
  • the neuroendocrine gland located beneath the brain
  • serves a variety of functions:
  • regulation of the gonads
  • thyroid
  • adrenal cortex
  • water balance
  • lactation
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78
Q

Roles of the Nervous System

A
  1. Sensory Impulses
    - To monitor changes occurring inside and outside the body
    - Changes = stimuli
    1. Interpretation
      • To process and interpret sensory input and decide if action is needed
    2. Motor Output
      • A response to integrated stimuli
      • The response activates muscles or glands
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79
Q

Central Nervous System vs. Peripheral Nervous System

A
  • Central nervous system (CNS)
    - Brain
    - Spinal cord
    • Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
      • Nerves outside the brain and spinal cord
        • Spinal nerves (31 pairs)
        • Cranial nerves (12 pairs)
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80
Q

Functional Types of Neurons

A
  1. sensory (afferent) neurons: nerve fibers that carry impulses to the CNS from sensory receptors
  2. motor (efferent) neurons:
    - carrying away or from
    - carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, the muscles, and glands.
  3. interneurons:
    - called association neurons
    - complete the pathway between afferent and efferent neurons.
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81
Q

How are structural Neurons classified?

A
  • irritability (ability to respond to stimuli)

- conductivity (ability to transmit an impulse).

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82
Q

Structural Neurons

A
  • multipolar neurons: several processes extending from the neuron.
  • bipolar neurons: neurons that have two processes, and axon and a dendrite.
  • unipolar neurons: a single process emerging from the cell body.
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83
Q

Factors that Affect Transmission of a Nerve Impulse

A
  • Myelinated or unmyelinated
    • Lack or excess of sodium and potassium
    • amount of nodes of ranvier
    • Number of poles
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84
Q

Reflex Arc

A
  1. Stimulus at distal end of a neuron
  2. Receptor
  3. Sensory Neuron
  4. Spinal cord, Integration center (Interneuron)
  5. Motor Neuron
  6. Effector
  7. Response
    • 2 Neuron Reflex Arc
      • Sensory straight to effector
      • Ex: Knee-Jerk, gagging
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85
Q

Synapse

A
  • Gap between the two neurons
  • Makes sure that the impulse goes in the correct direction
  • the region of communication between neurons, or a neuromuscular junction between a neuron and a muscle cell
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86
Q

Saltatory Conduction

A
  • The Impulses Jump
    • Fibers that have myelin sheaths conduct impulses much faster because the impulse leaps from node of rancher to node of ranvier along the length of the fiber
      • No electrical current can flow across an axon membrane that is insulated by fatty myelin
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87
Q

Nissl Substance

A

-Specialized rough endoplasmic reticulum

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88
Q

Neurofibrils

A
  • Intermediate cytoskeleton

- Maintains cell shape

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89
Q

Dendrites

A

-conduct impulses toward the cell body

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90
Q

Axons

A

-conduct impulses away from the cell body

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91
Q

Axon Terminals

A
  • Axonal terminals contain vesicles with neurotransmitters

- Axonal terminals are separated from the next neuron by a gap

92
Q

Myelin Sheath

A

-whitish, fatty material covering axons

93
Q

Schwann Cells

A

-produce myelin sheaths in jelly roll–like fashion

94
Q

Nodes of Ranvier

A

-gaps in myelin sheath along the axon

95
Q

Axon Hillock

A

-conelike structure, where the axon arises from

96
Q

Collateral Branch

A

-Split in an axon that allows the impulse to travel to another area

97
Q

Neuroglia Cells

A
  • the nonneuronal tissue of the CNS that performs supportive and other functions
  • support, insulate, and protect delicate neurons.
98
Q

Neuroglia Cell Types

A
  • Astrocytes
  • Ependymal
  • Microglia
  • Oligodendrocytes
99
Q

Astrocytes

A
  • star-shaped cells that make up most neural tissue
  • form a living barrier between capillaries and neurons
  • help to protect the neurons from harmful substances that might be in the blood
100
Q

Microglia

A
  • spider-like phagocytes that monitor the Health of nearby neurons
  • dispose of debris, including dead brain cells and bacteria
101
Q

Ependymal Cells

A
  • lines the central cavities of the brain and spinal cord

- fluid forms a protective cushion around the CNS.

102
Q

Oligodendrocytes

A

-flat extensions that wrap around neurons producing the myelin sheath.

103
Q

Conduction of a nerve impulse

A
  • Permeable axon receives an impulse
  • Sodium goes in and potassium goes out
  • Creates local depolarization
  • The axon is fully depolarizer, which creates action potential (travels down the axon)
  • Axon repolarizes by bringing potassium back in and sending sodium out
104
Q

Multiple Sclerosis

A
  • The myelin sheaths around the fibers are gradually destroyed, converting to hard sheaths called scleroses
    • Electrical current is short-circuited
    • Protein component of the sheath is attacked
    • Visual & speech disturbances, loss of ability to control muscles (Increasingly disabled)
105
Q

Ciliary Body

A

-Smooth muscle attached to lens

106
Q

Ciliary Zonule

A

-suspensory ligament that attaches the lens to the ciliary body in the anterior eye

107
Q

Cornea

A
  • Transparent, central anterior portion
    - Allows for light to pass through -Repairs itself easily
    - The only human tissue that can be transplanted without fear of rejection
108
Q

Iris

A

-regulates amount of light entering eye

109
Q

Pupil

A

-rounded opening in the iris

110
Q

Aqueous Humor

A

-Watery fluid found between lens and cornea
-Similar to blood plasma
-Helps maintain intraocular pressure
-Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea
-Reabsorbed into venous blood through the scleral venous sinus, or canal of
Schlemm

111
Q

Lens

A
  • Biconvex crystal-like structure

- Held in place by a suspensory ligament attached to the ciliary body

112
Q

Canal of Schlemm

A

-Aqueous humor fluid is reabsorbed into venous blood

113
Q

Vitreous Humor

A
  • Gel-like substance posterior to the lens
  • Prevents the eye from collapsing
  • Helps maintain intraocular pressure
114
Q

Sclera

A
  • White connective tissue layer

- Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye”

115
Q

Choroid

A
  • blood-rich nutritive layer in the posterior of the eye

- Pigment prevents light from scattering

116
Q

Retina

A
  • Outer pigmented layer
    - Inner neural layer
    - Contains receptor cells (photoreceptors)
    - Rods- Images
  • Cones-Colors
117
Q

Fovea Centralis

A

-area of the retina with only cones

118
Q

Optic Nerve

A

-Receives impulses for interpreting sight

119
Q

Central Artery and Vein of the Retina

A

-Vascularizes the eye

120
Q

Optic Disc

A
  • Blindspot
  • where the optic nerve leaves the eyeball
  • Cannot see images focused on the optic disc
121
Q

Accessory Structures of the Eye

A
  • Eyelids/Eyelashes
  • Conjunctiva
  • Lacrimal Apparatus
  • Extrinsic Eye Muscles
122
Q

Eyelids and Eyelashes

A
  • Tarsal glands lubricate the eye

- Ciliary glands are located between the eyelashes

123
Q

Conjunctiva

A
  • Membrane that lines the eyelids
  • Connects to the surface of the eye
  • Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye
124
Q

Properties of Lacrimal Fluid (Lacrimal Apparatus)

A
  • Dilute salt solution (tears)

- Contains antibodies and lysozyme

125
Q

Function of Lacrimal Apparatus

A
  • Protects, moistens, and lubricates the eye

- Empties into the nasal cavity

126
Q

Lacrimal Apparatus (Parts)

A
  • Lacrimal gland—produces lacrimal fluid
  • Lacrimal canals—drain lacrimal fluid from eyes
  • Lacrimal sac—provides passage of lacrimal fluid towards nasal cavity
  • Nasolacrimal duct—empties lacrimal fluid into the nasal cavity
127
Q

Cones

A
  • Allow for detailed color vision
  • Densest in the center of the retina
  • Cone Sensitivity:
    • Three types of cones
    • Different cones are sensitive to different wavelengths
      - Red, Green, Blue
    • Color blindness is the result of the lack of one cone type
128
Q

Rods

A
  • Most are found towards the edges of the retina
  • Allow dim light vision and peripheral vision
  • All perception is in gray tones
129
Q

Night Blindness

A

-inhibited rod function that hinders the ability to see at night

130
Q

Glaucoma

A

-can cause blindness due to increasing pressure within the eye

131
Q

Hemianopia

A
  • loss of the same side of the visual field of both eyes

- results from damage to the visual cortex on one side only

132
Q

Cataracts

A
  • when lens becomes hard and opaque

- vision becomes hazy and distorted

133
Q

Color Blindness

A
  • genetic conditions that result in the inability to see certain colors
  • Due to the lack of one type of cone (partial color blindness)
134
Q

Strabismus

A
  • “cross eyed”

- due to an uneven pull by extrinsic eye muscles that prevents coordination between eyes

135
Q

Presbyopia

A

-elasticity of the lens as you age

136
Q

Emmetropia

A

-eye focuses images correctly on the retina (normal vision)

137
Q

Astigmatism

A
  • Images are blurry
  • Results from light focusing as lines, not points, on the retina due to
  • unequal curvatures of the cornea or lens
138
Q

Hyperopia

A
  • Farsighted
  • Near objects are blurry while distant objects are clear
  • Distant objects are focused behind the retina
  • Results from an eyeball that is too short or from a “lazy lens”
139
Q

Myopia

A

-Nearsighted
-Distant objects appear blurry
-Light from those objects fails to reach the retina and are focused in front of it
=Results from an eyeball that is too long

140
Q

Pathway of Light Through the Eye

A
  • Light must be focused to a point on the retina for optimal vision
  • The eye is set for distance vision (over 20 feet away)
  • Accommodation—the lens must change shape to focus on closer objects (less than 20 feet away)
  • Image formed on the retina is a real image
    • Real images are
      • Reversed from left to right
      • Upside down
      • Smaller than the object
141
Q

Ophthalmoscope

A
  • Instrument used to illuminate the interior of the eyeball

- Can detect diabetes, arteriosclerosis, degeneration of the optic nerve and retina

142
Q

The Ear

A
  • Houses two senses
    - Hearing
    - Equilibrium (balance)
    • Receptors are mechanoreceptors
    • Different organs house receptors for each sense
143
Q

Auricle

A
  • Surrounds the auditory canal opening

- ”Ear” part

144
Q

Auditory Canal

A

(external acoustic meatus)

  • Narrow chamber in the temporal bone
    - Lined with skin and ceruminous (wax) glands
    - Ends at the tympanic membrane
145
Q

Tympanic Membrane

A
  • Hit w/ sound waves from auditory canal

- Vibrates w/ sound hits

146
Q

Hammer

A

(malleus) :
- Sends vibration from eardrum to anvil
- Part of the ossicles

147
Q

Anvil

A

(incus) :
- Sends vibration to stirrup
- Part of the ossicles

148
Q

Stirrup

A
  • (Stapes):
    - Sends vibration to the inner ear
    - Part of the ossicles
149
Q

Vestibulocochlear Nerve

A
  • both hearing and balance and brings information from the inner ear to the brain
  • A human’s sense of equilibrium is determined by this nerve
150
Q

Semicircular Canals

A

-Responds to rotational movements (angular acceleration)

151
Q

Oval Window and Round Window

A
  • Opening in the middle ear

- Release pressure in the ear

152
Q

Cochlea

A
  • cavity of the inner ear resembling a snail shell

- houses the hearing receptor

153
Q

Vestibule

A
  • Between semicircular canal & cochlea

- Responds to changes in the position with respect to gravity

154
Q

Pharynogtympanic Tube

A
  • tube that connects the middle ear and the pharynx

- allows pressure to be equalized on both sides of the eardrum

155
Q

Trace sound Ear –> Brain

A
  • Auricle (pinna)
    • Auditory Canal
    • Tympanic Membrane (eardrum)
    • Malleus, Incus, Stapes (Amplification in middle ear
    • Oval Window
    • Fluid in cochlear canals (Organ of Corti Stimulated)
  • Cochlear nerve brings impulse to the temporal lobe
156
Q

Outer, Inner, and Middle Ear

A
  • Outer:
    - Auricle
    - Auditory Canal
    • Middle:
      • Tympanic Membrane (eardrum)
      • Hammer (malleus)
  • Anvil (Incus)
    - Stirrup (Stapes)
    • Inner:
      • Semicircular Canal
      • Cochlea
      • Vestibule
157
Q

Organ of Corti/ Mechanisms of Hearing

A
  • Organ of Corti:
    - Located within the cochlea
    - Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane
    - Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of bending hair cells
    - Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells transmits nerve impulses to auditory cortex in temporal lobe
  • Vibrations from sound waves move tectorial membrane
  • Hair cells are bent by the membrane
  • An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve
  • Continued stimulation can lead to adaptation
158
Q

Organs of Equilibrium

A
  • Equilibrium receptors of the inner ear are called the vestibular apparatus
    • Vestibular apparatus has two functional parts
      • Static Equilibrium
      • Dynamic Equilibrium
159
Q

Static Equilibrium

A

(Non-moving):

        - Maculae—receptors in the vestibule
            - Report on the position of the head
            - Send information via the vestibular nerve
        - Anatomy of the maculae
            - Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic membrane
            - Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel around the hair cells
            - Movements cause otoliths to bend the hair cells
160
Q

Dynamic Equilibrium

A

(Moving):

        - Crista ampullaris—receptors in the semicircular canals
            - Tuft of hair cells
            - Cupula (gelatinous cap) covers the hair cells
        - Action of angular head movements
            - The cupula stimulates the hair cells
            - An impulse is sent via the vestibular nerve to the cerebellum
161
Q

Location & Orientation (Heart)

A

Location

        - Thorax between the lungs in the inferior mediastinum - Mediastinum: Cavity inside the thoracic cavity
    - Orientation
        - Pointed apex directed toward left hip
        - Base points toward right shoulder
    - About the size of your fist (1 pound)
162
Q

Three Layers of the Heart Wall

A
  • Epicardium (Protection)
    - Outside layer
    - This layer is the visceral pericardium
    - Connective tissue layer
    - Myocardium
    - Middle layer
    - Mostly cardiac muscle
    - Endocardium
    - Inner layer
    - Endothelium (smooth)
163
Q

Function of Heart/Circulation

A
  • deliver oxygen and nutrients throughout the body (lipids, proteins, carbs, nucleic acids, water)
  • remove carbon dioxide and other waste products
164
Q

Conduction of the Heart

A
  • SA node
    - Sends signals to AV node and left atrium
    - Av node
    - Go through the Bundle of His
    - To bundle branches
    - to Purkinje Fibers
    * Sometimes there is a heart block (blocks the transmission)
165
Q

Blood Pressure

A
  • Blood Pressure: Measurements by health professionals are made based on the pressure in large arteries.
    - Systolic: Peak of ventricular contraction
    - Diastolic: Ventricles are relaxed
166
Q

What affects Blood Pressure?

A
  • ANYTHING can affect a person’s BP
    - Some potential factors that affect BP:
    - Age, weight, time of day, exercise, body position, emotional state
    - Neural factors: autonomic nervous system adjustments (sympathetic division)
    - Renal factors: regulation by altering blood volume, hormone control (renin)
    - Temperature (heat = vasodilating effect), (cold = vasoconstricting effect)
    - Chemicals & Diet can lead to increases or decreases in BP
167
Q

Function of Blood Vessels

A
  • Transport blood to the tissues and back
  • Carry blood away from the heart
    - ARTERIES: walls of arteries are the thickest
    - ARTERIOLES
  • Exchange between tissues and blood
    - CAPILLARY BED: consist of two types of vessels
    - Vascular shunt- directly connecting arteriole to venule
    - True capillaries- exchange vessels; oxygen and nutrients cross to cells, while carbon dioxide and metabolic waste cross into blood
  • Return blood toward the heart
    - VENULES
    - VEINS: lumens of veins are large, have valves that prevent backflow, skeletal muscle “milks” blood in veins toward the heart
168
Q

Microscopic Anatomy of Blood Vessels

A
  • Three layers also called tunics:
    • tunic intima (endothelium)
    • tunic media (smooth muscle, sympathetic NS)
    • tunic externa (fibrous connective tissue)
169
Q

Major Arteries and Veins

A
  • Aorta: Largest ARTERY in the body, leaves from the left ventricle of the heart
    - Superior and Inferior Vena Cava: VEINS that enter the right atrium of the heart
    - Superior VC: drains the head and arms
    - Inferior VC: drains the lower body
170
Q

Electrocardiogram

A
  • Depolarization:
    - Changing the polarity of the nerve (sodium & hydrogen involved)
    - Stimulating the nerve
    - P wave (Depolarization of atriums)
  • QRS wave (Depolarization of ventricles)
    - Repolarization:
    - Back to the original stage
    - T wave (Repolarization of entire heart)
171
Q

Lub-Dub (Heart Sounds)

A
  • Lub: closing of the tricuspid and bicuspid valves (AV Valves)
  • Dub: Closing of the aortic and pulmonary semilunar valves
172
Q

Atherosclerosis

A
  • Hardening of the Blood Vessels
    - Slowing of blood flow
    - Collapsing muscles around veins
    - changes in the walls of large arteries consisting of lipid deposits on the artery walls
    • The early stage of arteriosclerosis and increased rigidity.
  • junk that’s getting in you, aging if blood vessels- everything is slowing down, circulation doesn’t go as well caused by stressed(mothers who had babies, jobs)
173
Q

Organs of the Digestive System

A
  • Two main groups
    • Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal tract) —continuous coiled hollow tube
    • Accessory: digestive organs
174
Q

Organs of the Alimentary Canal (GI Tract)

A
  • Pathway from mouth to anus (food passes through)
  • Mouth
  • Pharynx
  • Esophagus
  • Stomach
  • Small Intestine (97% of digestion)
  • Large Intestine
  • Anus
175
Q

Mouth (Oral Cavity) Anatomy

A
  • Lips (Labia): Protect the anterior opening
  • Cheeks: form lateral walls (buccal cavity)
  • Hard Palate: Forms the anterior roof
  • Soft Palate: forms posterior roof
  • Uvula: Fleshy projection of the soft palate (Lymph tissue)
176
Q

Mouth Philosophy

A
  • Mastication: Chewing of food
  • Mixing masticated food with saliva (bolus)
  • Initiation of swallowing by the tongue
    • Tongue rolls back
    • Larynx rises
    • Constriction
    • Deglutition (swallowing)
  • Allows for sense of taste
177
Q

Pharynx Anatomy

A
  • Nasopharynx: Not pharynx of the digestive system
  • Oropharynx: Posterior to the oral cavity
  • Laryngopharynx: Below the Oropharynx and connected to the esophagus
178
Q

Teeth (Function)

A
  • Function is the masticate (chew food)
  • Humans have two sets of teeth
    • Deciduous (baby or “milk” teeth)
    • 20 teeth are fully formed by age 2
179
Q

Permanent Teeth

A
  • Replace deciduous teeth between ages 6 and 12
  • A full set of 32 teeth, but some people do not have wisdom teeth (third molars)
    • If they do emerge, the wisdom teeth appear between ages 17-25
180
Q

Classifications of Teeth

A
  • Incisors (cutting)
  • Canines ( tearing or piercing)
  • Premolars (grinding)
  • Molars (grinding)
181
Q

Regions of the Tooth

A
  • Crown (exposed part)
  • Neck (region in contact with gums)
  • Root (attaches tooth to periodontal membrane)
182
Q

Crown

A
  • Enamel: hardest substance in the body
  • Dentin: Found deep to the enamel and forms the bulk of the tooth
  • Pulp Cavity: Contains connective tissue, blood vessels, and nerve fibers
  • Root canal: Where the pulp cavity extends into the root
183
Q

Neck

A
  • Region in contact with the gum

- Connects crown to root

184
Q

Root

A
  • Cementum: Covers outer surface

- Attaches the tooth to the periodontal membrane

185
Q

Salivary Glands

A
  • Three pairs of salivary glands empty secretions into the mouth
    • Parotid glands: In front of the ear
    • Submandibular: Below the mandible (anterior)
    • Sublingual: Below the tongue (posterior)
      • In back of the submandibular
186
Q

Saliva

A
  • Mixture of Mucus and serous fluids
  • Helps to form a food bolus
  • Contains salivary amylase to begin starch digestion
  • Dissolves chemicals so they can be tasted
187
Q

Pharynx Physiology

A

-Serves as a passageway for air and food
-Food is propelled to the esophagus by two muscle layers
-Longitudinal inner layer
-Circular outer layer
-Food movement is by alternating contractions of the muscle layers
(Peristalsis: wave-like contractions)

188
Q

Esophagus Anatomy and Physiology

A
  • Anatomy:
    • About 10 inches long
    • Runs from pharynx to stomach through the diaphragm
  • Physiology:
    • Conducts food by peristalsis (slow rhythmic squeezing)
    • Passageway for food only (respiratory system branches off after the pharynx)
189
Q

Layers of the Alimentary Canal Organs

A
  • Mucosa
  • Submucosa
  • Muscalaris Externa
  • Serosa
190
Q

Mucosa

A
  • Innermost, moist membrane consisting of surface epithelium
    • Surface epithelium
    • Small amount of connective tissue (lamina propria)
    • Small smooth muscle layer)
191
Q

Submucosa

A
  • Just beneath the mucosa

- Soft connective tissue with blood vessels, nerves endings, and lymphatics

192
Q

Muscularis Externa

A
  • Smooth Muscle
  • Inner circular layer
  • Outer longitudinal layer
193
Q

Serosa

A
  • Outermost layer of the wall that contains fluid-producing cells
    • Visceral peritoneum: Outermost layer that is continuous with the innermost layer
    • Parietal Peritoneum: Innermost layer that lines the abdominopelvic cavity
194
Q

Alimentary Canal Nerve Plexus

A
  • Bundle of nerves
  • Two important nerve Plexuses serve the alimentary canal
  • Both are part of the autonomic nervous system
    • Submucosal nerve plexus
    • Myenteric nerve plexus
  • Function is to regulate mobility and secretory activity of the GI Tract organs
195
Q

Small Intestine

A
  • The body’s major digestive organ (19-21 feet)
  • Site of nutrient absorption into the body
  • Function: Chemical Digestion
  • Muscular tube extending from the pyloric sphincter to the ileocecal valve
  • Suspended from the posterior abdominal wall by the mesentery tissue
196
Q

Chemical Digestion of the Small Intestine

A
  • Chemical digestion begins in the small intestine
  • Enzymes are produced by
    • Intestinal glands
    • Pancreas
  • Pancreatic ducts carry enzymes to the small intestine
  • Bile, formed by the liver, enters via the common bile duct (emulsification)
197
Q

What do certain nutrients break down to?

A
  • Protein–> amino acids
  • Carbohydrates–> Monosaccharides
  • Lipids–> Fatty acids and glycerol
  • Nucleic acids–> nucleotides
198
Q

Small Intestine Anatomy

A
  • Three Structural modifications that increase surface area
    • Microvilli: Tiny projections of the plasma membrane (create a brush boarder appearance)
    • Villi: Fingerlike structures formed by the mucosa
    • Circular folds (plicae circulares) deep folds of the mucosa and Submucosa
199
Q

Lacteal

A
  • Absorbs fatty acids and glycerol
  • Makes lymph tissue (and lymph fluid)
  • Lymph makes antibodies
200
Q

Intestinal Juices

A
  • Sucrase: sucrose–> glucose
  • Lactase: lactose –> glucose
  • Maltase: maltose –> glucose
201
Q

Subdivisions of the Small Intestine

A
  • Duodenum (1 foot)
    • Attached to the stomach
    • Curves around the head of the pancreas
  • Jejunum (8-10)
    • Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
  • Illeum (longest part)
    • Extends from the Jejunum to large intestine
202
Q

Stomach Anatomy

A
  • Located on the left side of the abdominopelvic cavity
  • Food enters at the cardioesophageal sphincter
  • Food (chyme) empties into the small intestine at the pyloric sphincter (valve)
203
Q

Regions of the Stomach

A
  • Cardiac region: near the heart
  • Fundus: Expanded portion lateral to the cardiac regions
  • Body: midportion
  • Pylorus: funnel-shaped terminal end
204
Q

Rugae

A

-Internal folds of mucosa

205
Q

External Regions of the stomach

A
  • Lesser curvature: concave (curving in) medial surface

- Greater curvature: convex (curving out) lateral surface

206
Q

Layers of the Peritoneum Attached to the Stomach

A
  • Lesser Omentum: Attaches the liver to the lesser curvature
  • Greater Omentum: Attaches the great curvature to the posterior body wall
    • Contains fat to insulate, cushion, and protect abdominal organs
    • Has lymph nodules containing macrophages
207
Q

Stomach Philosophy

A
  • Temporary storage tank for food
  • Site of food breakdown
  • Chemical breakdown of protein begins
  • Delivers chyme (Processed food) to the small intestine (to turn into chyle)
208
Q

Stomach can absorb what?

A
  • Asprin

- Alcohol

209
Q

Structure of the Stomach Mucosa

A
  • Mucosa is simple columnar epithelium
  • Mucous neck cells: produce a sticky alkaline mucus
  • Gastric glands: stimulated in gastric pits and secrete gastric juice (2 pH)
  • Chief cells: Produce protein– digestive enzymes (pepsinogens)
  • Parietal cells: produce hydrochloric acid
  • Enteroendocrine cells: produce gastrin hormones
210
Q

Large Intestine

A
  • Large in diameter, but shorter in length, than the small intestine
  • Frames the internal abdomen
211
Q

Amylase

A
  • Enzyme

- Turns a starch into maltose

212
Q

Peristalysis

A

-Wavelike movement of a bolus through the pharynx

213
Q

Digestive System Functions

A
  • Ingestion: Taking in food
  • Digestion: Breaking down food both mechanically and chemically
  • Absorption: Movement of nutrients into the bloodstream
  • Defecation: rids the body of indigestible waste
  • Propulsion: swallowing, peristalsis
214
Q

What is neutralized chyme called?

215
Q

Cecum and Appendix (Large Intestine Anatomy)

A
  • Cecum: Saclike first part of the large intestine
  • Appendix:
    • Accumulation of lymphatic tissue that sometimes becomes inflamed (appendicitis)
    • Hangs from the cecum
216
Q

Colon (Large intestine Anatomy)

A
  • Ascending: Travels up right side of abdomen
  • Transverse: Across the abdominal cavity
  • Descending: Travels down the left side
  • Sigmoid: enters the pelvis
217
Q

Rectum and Anus (Large Intestine Anatomy)

A
  • Rectum and Anal cavity: also in pelvis
  • Anus: Opening of the large intestine
    • External anal sphincter- formed by skeletal muscle and under voluntary control
    • Internal involuntary sphincter- formed by smooth muscle
    • These sphincters are normally closed except during defecation
218
Q

Large Intestine Anatomy

A
  • No villi present
  • Goblet cells produce alkaline mucus which lubricates the passage of feces
  • Muscularis Externa layer is reduced to three bands of muscle called teniae coli
  • These bands cause the wall to pucker into haustra (pocket-like sacs)
219
Q

Parts of the Large Intestine

A
  • Cecum
  • Appendix
  • Colon
  • Rectum
  • Anus
220
Q

Pancreas

A
  • Found posterior to the parietal peritoneum
  • Extends across the abdomen from spleen to duodenum
  • Produces a wide variety of digestive enzymes that break down all categories of food
  • Enzymes are secreted into the duodenum
  • Alkaline fluid introduced with enzymes naturalizes acidic chyme coming from the stomach
  • Hormones produced by the pancreas
    • Insulin (controls blood sugar level)
    • Glucagon (helps stabilize low blood-sugar levels)
221
Q

Liver

A
  • Largest gland in the body
  • Located on the right side of the body under the diaphragm
  • Consists of four lobes suspended from the diaphragm and the abdominal wall by the falciform ligament: connected to the gallbladder via the common hepatic duct
222
Q

Muscle for Chewing

A
  • Buccinator
  • Temporalis
  • Masseter
223
Q

Chambers of the Heart

A
  • Deoxygenated: Right Side
  • Oxygenated: Left
    • Atriums: Receive blood (not as muscular)
    • Ventricles: Pump blood
    • R.V: Pumps Deoxygenated blood to the lungs
    • L. V: Pumps Oxygenated blood to the body
    • Tricuspid Valve: Allows blood to leave Right Atrium and enter the Right Ventricle
    • Bicuspid Valve (Mitral valve): Allows blood to leave Left Atrium and enter the Left Ventricle
    • Semilunar Valves: Left & Right; Open when Tricuspid and Bicuspid valves close, allow blood to leave the heart
      • RSL: Pulmonary Semilunar
      • LSL: Aortic Semilunar
    -Interventricular Septum: Separates the 2 vertices
224
Q

Pathway blood from right atrium to toe

A
  • Right Atrium
    - Tricuspid valve
    - Right ventricle
    - Pulmonary semilunar valve
    - Pulmonary trunk
    - Pulmonary artery
    - Lungs (becomes oxygenated blood)
    - Pulmonary veins
    - Left atrium
    - Bicuspid valve
    - Left ventricle
    - Aortic semilunar valve
    - descending aorta
    - Iliac
    - Femoral
    - Popliteal
    - Tibial
    - Plantar digital
    - Arterioles
    - Capillaries
    - Back to the heart:
    - Venules
    - Plantar digital vein
    - Tibial vein
    - Popliteal vein
    - Femoral vein
    - Iliac vein
    - Inferior vena cava
225
Q

Pathway of blood right atrium to thumb

A
  • Right Atrium
    - Tricuspid valve
    - Right ventricle
    - Pulmonary semilunar valve
    - Pulmonary trunk
    - Pulmonary artery
    - Lungs
    - Pulmonary veins
    - Left Atrium
    - Bicuspid valve
    - Left ventricle
    - Aortic semilunar valve
    - Aorta
    - Brachiocephalic trunk
    - Brachiocephalic artery
    - Subclavian
    - Axillary
    - Brachial
    - Radial
    - Common Palmar Digital
    - Arterioles
    - Capillaries
    - Back to Heart:
    - Venules
    - Palmar Digital veins
    - Radial veins
    - Brachial veins
    - Axillary veins
    - Subclavian veins
    - Brachiocephalic veins
    - Superior vena cava
226
Q

Trace light pathway through the eye

A
  • Cornea
  • Aqueous Humor
  • Lens

Finals 2016 (6 decks)

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