Alternatives to Experimentation: Non-Experimental Designs

Question 1

Non-experimental approaches may have greater _: the generalizability or applicability to people and situations outside the research setting.

Answer 1

external validity

Question 1

_ are used when an experiment is not practical or desirable, teasing a hypothesis in an existing real-life situation is necessary or important, you want to explore unique or rare occurrences, or to sample personal information in natural settings.

Answer 1

Non-experimental Approaches

Question 2

There are two major dimensions in research:

Answer 2

1. Degree of manipulation of antecedent conditions
2. Degree of imposition of units

Question 3

_ is a description of an individual’s immediate experience where our source of data are personal experiences.

Answer 3

Phenomenology

Question 4

Phenomenology has _ degrees, where antecedents are _ and _ are imposed.

Answer 4

Low-low degrees; not manipulated and data may consist of any immediate experiences, no constraints

Question 5

_ was interested in the physiology of vision, and noticed that colors seemed to change as twilight deepened.

Answer 5

Johannes Purkinje

Question 6

_ is the understanding of spectral sensitivity to colors of different wavelengths.

Answer 6

Purkinje Effect

Question 7

_ dealt with basic psychological issues like habits, emotions, consciousness, and stream of thoughts from the phenomenological perspective of his own experiences.

Answer 7

William James

Question 8

In _, researchers cannot be sure if the process in observing experiences is not altered by attention to it. Researchers may not be able to achieve the degree of accuracy and objectivity if they observe their own behaviors. It will be difficult for others to replicate our experiences and apply scientific criteria to the findings.

Answer 8

Phenomenology

Question 9

_ cannot be used to understand the causes of behavior. It describes, but it does not explain a behavior. It may lead researchers into areas of discovery that might otherwise go unnoticed.

Answer 9

Phenomenology

Question 10

_ may lead to the formulation of new hypothesis and have elements that are mostly combined with other research methods. It is a frequent component of qualitative research.

Answer 10

Phenomenology

Question 11

Case Studies _ and _ degrees, where it involves _ of antecedent conditions and a _ descriptive record of a single individual’s experiences or behaviors, or both, kept by an _ observer.

Answer 11

low-low and low-high;
no manipulation;
outside

Question 12

Some case studies will _ the kind of info collected, placing it on the low-high category.

Answer 12

severely restrict

Question 13

According to Kazdin (2003), there are 5 major purposes of case study:

Answer 13

1. They are a source of inferences, hypotheses and theories.
2. They are a source for developing therapy techniques.
3. They allow a study of rare phenomena.
4. They provide exceptions, or counter instances to accept ideas, theories or
   practices.
5. They have persuasive and motivational value

Question 14

In case studies, _ are where cases of deviant and normal individuals are compared for significant differences.

Answer 14

Deviant Case Analysis

Question 15

Case studies pose the following limitations:

Answer 15

1. One or few subjects may not be a representative of the general population.
2. We may not be aware of all the relevant aspects of a person’s life if we are not able to directly observe him/her all the time.
3. Subjects or other sources of information may neglect to mention important information because it is irrelevant or embarrassing.
4. It relies on retrospective data - data collected in the present based on recollections of past events.
5. Researchers cannot make cause-and-effect statements about behaviors observed.

Question 16

In case studies, record made at the _ are always preferred.

Answer 16

time of an event

Question 17

_ are non-experimental approaches that are used in the field or in real-life settings.

Answer 17

Field Studies

Question 18

In _, the use of combined types of data gathering to capitalize on the richness and range of behavior found outside the laboratory.

Answer 18

Field Studies

Question 19

Field studies have _, _, and _ degrees, where there is _, but the degree of constraint on responses _ from study to study.

Answer 19

low-low, low-high, medium-medium;
no manipulation;
varies considerably

Question 20

In field studies, _ is a technique of observing behaviors as they occur spontaneously in natural settings.

Answer 20

Naturalistic Observation Studies

Question 21

In field studies, naturalistic observation is in low-low degree, for it is a descriptive method where subjects’ responses are _.

Answer 21

free to vary

Question 22

In field studies, _ has been used extensively in animal behavior research or _.

Answer 22

Naturalistic Observation Studies;
ethology

Question 23

In _, researchers attempt to remain inconspicuous (staying out o sight) so that behaviors being observed are not altered by the presence of the observer.

Answer 23

Naturalistic Observation Studies

Question 24

In _, setting is kept as natural as possible so that naturally occurring events will not be altered in any way.

Answer 24

Naturalistic Observation Studies

Question 25

In _, when and who to observe and what to record and analyse lies on the researcher’s judgement and observational skills.

Answer 25

Naturalistic Observation Studies

Question 26

_ are used because some behaviors may be distorted by bringing them in the laboratory setting, so such behaviors are best observed where they naturally occur.

Answer 26

Naturalistic Observation Studies

Question 27

The naturalistic observation studies have the following limitations: _ and _.

Answer 27

1. It provides wealth of descriptive information, BUT it DOES NOT lend itself to testing causal antecedents of behavior or determining cause and effect.
2. Reactivity: the tendency of subjects to alter their behavior or responses when they are aware of the observer’s presence.

Question 28

In _, observers should remain as unobtrusive (inconspicuous) as possible when conducting naturalistic observations.

Answer 28

Naturalistic Observaiton Studies

Question 29

In naturalistic observation studies, _ are behavioral indicators that are observable without the subject’s knowledge.

Answer 29

Unobtrusive Measure

Question 30

In fields studies, _ is where the researcher actually becomes a part of the group being studied.

Answer 30

Participant-observer studies

Question 31

In fields studies, _ is the only method possible if the group would not reasonably be expected to cooperate voluntarily with the research investigation.

Answer 31

Participant-observer studies

Question 32

In field studies, _ is where group members are not informed that they are part of the study.

Answer 32

Participant-observer studies

Question 33

In field studies, participant-observer studies have _ degrees because it does not include _ or _, where qualitative data is being gathered.

Answer 33

low-low;
systematic observation;
measurement techniques

Question 34

In field studies, _ allows observers to find it difficult to remain objective and unbiased because friendships form.

Answer 34

Participant-observer studies

Question 35

In field studies, the participant-observer studies present the following ethical concerns:

Answer 35

1. Is the observation going to make an important contribution to the psychological knowledge?
2. Are you invading the privacy of others?
3. Is it ethical not to tell people they are being studied?
4. Is it ethical to pretend to be a real group member?

Question 36

In field studies, _ is still ethical IF behaviors being observed are performed in a
public place where individuals would not expect privacy.

Answer 36

Participant-observer studies

Question 37

_ is a descriptive research method in which already existing records are being reexamined for a new purpose.

Answer 37

Archival Studies

Question 38

The data in _ are used to analyze societal trends or to gather information about population subgroups.

Answer 38

Archival Studies

Question 39

In _, causal inferences cannot be supported, but it serves as a valuable information for further study on these issues.

Answer 39

Archival Studies

Question 40

_ relies on words rather than numbers for the data being collected: self-reports, personal narratives, expression of ideas, memories, feelings and thoughts.

Answer 40

Qualitative research

Question 41

Some argue that _, or the “big-Q” is a candidate for a paradigm shift within psychology.

Answer 41

Qualitative Research

Question 42

_ is the set of attitudes, values, beliefs, methods and procedures that are generally accepted within a particular discipline.

Answer 42

Paradigm

Question 43

_ is the process of hypothesis testing, experimentation, and quantitative data analysis.

Answer 43

Acceped paradigm

Question 44

Contemporary/empirical phenomenology relies on the following sources of data:

Answer 44

1. The researcher’s SELF-REFLECTION on experiences relevant to the phenomenon of interest.
2. Participants’ ORAL and WRITTEN DESCRIPTIONS of their experiences of the phenomenon.
3. ACCOUNTS OF THE PHENOMENON obtained from literature, poetry, visual art, television, theatre, and previous phenomenological and other research

Question 45

_ relies on the participants’ actual words where researches also provide a number of verbatim narratives to support their conclusions.

Answer 45

Contemporary/empirical phenomenology

Question 46

In contemporary/empirical phenomenology, researchers validate their conclusions by _.

Answer 46

asking the participants to verify them and to offer corrections

Question 47

The validity of contemporary/empirical studies has the following nature:

Answer 47

1. Influence of researcher’s own viewpoint in the interpretation of data.
2. Influence of presence of researcher in the way participants would respond.
3. Accuracy of self-reports and use of retrospective data.

Question 48

In contemporary/empirical phenomenology, potential for mistakes and erroneous conclusions may be _ and where _ is a very important measure of its goodness.

Answer 48

greater;
replicability