ALL THEORIES

Question 1

Originated in the ancient world and continued into the Middle Ages. Saw behavior as a struggle between “Absolute Good” v. “Absolute Evil”. Punishments: Trial by Battle, Trial by Ordeal.

Answer 1

Spiritualism

Question 2

Focus on the physical world of facts and reason. “The brain is the organ of the mind”. Not impacted by demons or spirits! Led to the development of the Classical School of Criminology.

Answer 2

Naturalism

Question 3

Emphasis on the mind and body

Answer 3

Positivism

Question 4

criminal behavior is learned when the positive consequences of deviant behavior are more powerful than the positive consequences of normative behavior

Answer 4

akers social learning theory

Question 5

A different social process was suggested to explain why some people conform and others deviate from the norms of social behavior.

Answer 5

Strain theory

Question 6

Social structure limits access to the goal of success. The disjunction between what the culture expects and the opportunities provided by the social structure produces strain and pressure for deviance.

Answer 6

Merton’s Anomie Theory

Question 7

The role of negative emotions, particularly anger. Proposed there were three sources of strain:
Failure to achieve valued goals
Removal of a valued stimuli
Presentation of a negative stimuli

Answer 7

Agnew’s General Strain Theory

Question 8

The high rate of serious crime in the U.S. is caused by the distinct structure. Culture causes the economy to be emphasized over other social institutions - Education, family, religion, politics, etc.

Answer 8

Messner and Rosenfeld’s Institutional Anomie Theory

Question 9

based on emile durkheim’s view that individuals are born antisocial/ conformity can not be taken for granted / crime is fun and rewarding , when controls are absent, crime often does occur

Answer 9

Control Theories

Question 10

Denial of responsibility: ‘it’s not my fault!”
Denial of injury: “it didn’t really hurt anybody!”
Denial of the victim: “ they had it coming!”
Condemnation of condemners: “ You’ve done it too!”
Appeal to higher loyalty: “I didn’t do it for myself!”

Answer 10

Sykes and Matza’s Five Techniques of Neutralization

Question 11

The high rate of serious crime in the U.S. is caused by the distinct structure. Culture causes the economy to be emphasized over other social institutions - Education, family, religion, politics, etc.

Answer 11

Messner and Rosenfeld’s Institutional Anomie Theory

Question 12

Endomorphs- Soft, fatty build
Ectomorphs- Skinny, fragile build
Mesomorphs- Athletic, muscular build. Mesomorphic individuals were predicted to be more likely criminal. Led to the conclusion that criminal factors can be inherited.

Answer 12

Sheldon’s Somatotypes

Question 13

The central premise is that crime arises when social bonds are weak or absent. Four major social bonds
Attachment
Commitment
Involvement
Belief

Answer 13

Hirschi’s Social Bond Theory

Question 14

Self-control is created early in life and is theorized to remain stable throughout life. Six dimensions of low self control
Impulsivity
Self-Centeredness
Temper
Risk Seeking Behavior
Preference for Simple Tasks
Preference for Physical Activity

Answer 14

Hirschi and Gottfredson’s General Theory of Crime

Question 15

extended concepts of control theory to explain gender differences in criminal involvement.

Answer 15

John Hagan’s Power-Control Theory

Question 16

A false definition of a situation that evokes a new behavior which makes the originally incorrect conception become true.

Answer 16

Self-Fulfilling Prophecies

Question 17

Has the intention of invoking remorse in the person being shamed.
Disintegrative Shaming: negative labeling by the justice system that tends to stigmatize and exclude targeted individuals.
Reintegrative Shaming: community disapproval followed by reacceptance into the community of responsible law- abiders.

Answer 17

Braithwaite’s Theory of Reintegrative Shaming

Question 18

Crime was a result of a decrease of social unity. Problem seen in economic terms - Division of labor is the unjust exploitation of one social class by another. Proposed a revolution against the system to encourage socialism : Communist Manifesto.

Answer 18

Marx and Engles’s Marxist Theory

Question 19

The less complex the society, more emphasis will be on working together. The more complex the society, more emphasis will be placed on rule enforcement.

Answer 19

Chambliss and the Complexity of Society

Question 20

Crimes are action that threaten capitalist-patriarchal system

Answer 20

Messerschmidt’s Double Marginality Theory

Question 21

outlined biosocial hypothesis focusing on genetics as predisposing crime/ aimed to explain when individuals are more likely to commit crime/ bad families produce bad children meaning individual biological differences are influence social learning

Answer 21

Wilson and Herrnstein’s Crime and Human Nature

Question 22

intelligence is a singular ability
IQ scores are valid measures of the characteristic of intelligence
The IQ capacity is inherited rather than developed
Implemented races have higher/lower average IQs than others
Argued that the average IQ is decreasing due to: intelligent people having fewer children / people with lower IQs having more children

Answer 22

Herrnstein and Murray’s Bell Curve Theory

Question 23

the poverty of being without loving, capable, responsible adults who teach the young right from wrong/ solution to crime is to teach children morality to grow into healthy adults

Answer 23

Bennett’s Theory of Moral Poverty

Question 24

community decline begins when public signs of disorganization are tolerated When disorder occurs, crime ensues, and “respectable” people move away Disorder is caused by bad people → à breakdown in informal control→ invasion of predatory criminals → àhigh crime rates in neighborhoods
Solution was placed on police using “zero-tolerance” & “quality-of-life” policing

Answer 24

Wilson and Kelling’s Broken Windows Theory

Question 25

If you decrease the opportunities for offending, crime will be reduced
Focus on aspects of the environment that are most easily manipulated
A crime requires a criminal with the ability to carry out their intentions

Answer 25

Routine Activities Theory

Question 26

The decision to offend depends on the perceptions of the costs and benefits and not on the actual or objective risks of being sanctioned or gaining rewards.

Answer 26

Perceptual Deterrence Theory

Question 27

interact with environment to shape behavior
Rejects the past notion that biology creates a “ predestined” fate

Answer 27

Biosocial Theories

Question 28

frontal lobe of the brain/ activities of the frontal lobe are referred as executive functions : ( sustaining attention/ concentration, abstract reasoning, goal formulation, planning, effective self-monitoring behavior, self-awareness , planning, goal formulation) / violence and serious crime may be associated with frontal lobe dysfunction or injury/ long history of tracing various forms of crime to head and brain injuries

Answer 28

Neurological Theories

Question 29

High-risk individuals inherit an abnormal automatic nervous system (ANS)
They are less sensitive to environmental stimuli
Less likely to inhibit behavior

Answer 29

Central nervous system theory

Question 30

focus on sex hormones and neurotransmitters / concentrates on connections between testosterone and aggression / the chemical effect of testosterone lowers sensitivity to stimuli/ this contributes to aggression , problems with emotional control, and violence / other neurotransmitters linked to aggression are low levels of serotonin, low levels of domain, and high norepinephrine

Answer 30

Biochemical Theories

Question 31

Criminal behaviors develops over time and are not the result of one constant underlying biological, psychological, or social condition

Answer 31

Life-Course Criminology

Question 32

the observation that criminal behavior increases in adolescence and decreases in adulthood.

Answer 32

The Age-Crime Curve

Question 33

When does crime begin (Onset) ?
How long does crime last (Duration) ?
How frequently is crime committed (Incidence)?
When does crime stop (Desistance)?

Answer 33

Criminal Career Research

Question 34

Continuity- life-course persistent offenders ( LCP) begin engaging in antisocial behavior during childhood and continues beyond adolescence
These offenders have neuropsychological deficits
Affect verbal development and executive functioning
Change: adolescent limited offenders (AL) have no antisocial tendencies during childhood, change during adolescence, and desist into adulthood

Answer 34

Moffitt’s Developmental Taxonomy Theory

Question 35

Strong continuity in antisocial behavior from childhood through adulthood across a variety of life domains
If meaningful social bonds are established during adulthood, though, they can function as a “turning point” leads offenders into conformity
Family related issues are the most significant predictors of serious delinquency during adolescence

Answer 35

Sampson and Laub’s Age-Graded Theory of Informal Social Control:

Question 36

Punishment must be swift, severe, and certain to deter crime.

Answer 36

Beccaria’s Views on Punishment

Question 37

People seek pleasure and avoid pain.

Answer 37

Bentham’s Hedonistic Calculus

Question 38

The shape of an individual’s head could explain personality- Certain lumps indicate abnormal development.

Answer 38

Gall’s Phrenology

Question 39

refers to the unconscious mental processes that develop early in childhood and control our personality.
Id – basic biological and psychological urges ( Crime is the impulsive behavior of the id that is not controlled by the individual)
Ego – mediator–problem solver; deals with reality
Superego – moral code, conscience, norms, and values

Answer 39

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Approach:

Question 40

Zone I: Central Business District
Zone II: Transition Zone - was the main concern for crime: Deteriorating houses, Constant displacement, Waves of immigrants, Least desirable living conditions, Weakened family and community ties and resulted in social disorganization
Zone III: Workingmen Zone
Zone IV: Residential Zone
Zone V: Commuter Zone

Answer 40

Burgess’ Concentric Zones Theory