All Of Biology Workbook Flashcards
1
Q
list some dissacharides
A
sucrose Melrose lactose cellubiose
2
Q
carbons in a hexosugar
A
6
3
Q
systematic name for glucose
A
aldohexose
4
Q
difference between a and b glycosidic bond
A
analyse can not digest b cellubiose and the group points up
5
Q
2 functions of phospholipids
A
cell membrane, Store FA, lipoproteins( ldl hdl)
6
Q
2 functions of TAG
A
energy storage, temp regulation
7
Q
3 functions cholesterol
A
cell membrane, steroid hormones, bile, vitamin D
8
Q
triglycerol composed of
A
glycerol and 3 FA
9
Q
functional group of FA
A
carboxyl
10
Q
cholesterol is the precursor of
A
bile, vitamin D, steroids
11
Q
FA 18C 2 double bonds
A
linoleic acid
12
Q
FA 18C 3 double bonds
A
Linoleinic acid
13
Q
FA 16C no double bonds
A
palmitic acid
14
Q
FA omega 3
A
linoleinic acid
15
Q
omega
A
number of C at the end of chain to last double bond
16
Q
surfactant and it’s precursor
A
Lowes surface tension of liquid in alveoli to prevent lung collapse
17
Q
lipoprotein that causes heart disease
A
IDL, HDL
18
Q
serine belongs to
A
polar
19
Q
glycine belongs to
A
non polar
20
Q
glutamate belongs to
A
negative
21
Q
lysine belongs to
A
positive
22
Q
tyrosine belongs to
A
aromatic
23
Q
a helix is a _ structure of proteins
A
secondary
24
Q
SS bridge is a covalent bond between what AA
A
cystine
25
3 types RNA and functions
Rrna-compose ribosomes Mrna genetic info from nucleus to cytoplasm Trna translates nucleotide language to AA language
26
type of bond between nucleotides on same strand of DNA
phosphodiester
27
type of bond between anti parallel strand of DNA
hydrogen
28
difference DNA and RNA
DNA: double strand ATCG deoxyribose in nucleus RNA single strand AUCG ribose
29
nuclear membrane composed of
phospholipids cholesterol proteins carbs
30
transport across nuclear membrane is always
selective only NLS
31
DNA is copied to form another strand of DNA
replication
32
DNA copied to form a strand of RNA
transcription
33
DNA read to form a protein
translation
34
cell structure organelles in protein synthesis
rough endoolasmic reticulum
35
where does transcription occur
nucleus
36
where does translation occur
ribosome
37
where does protein sorting occur
golgi
38
structure of mitochondria
outer permeable and inner permeable membrane
39
name of the inner folds formed by invaginationor the mitochondrial inner membrane
crista
40
functions of golgi apparatus
sorting of proteins destined for various destinations in the cell, modifying proteins destined for secretion, packaging enzymes destined for lysosomes
41
PH in the lysosome
5
42
protozoa is
unicellular eukaryote
43
role of cytoskeleton in the cell
intracellular communication intracellular also structural rigidity cellular division
44
3 types of cytoskeleton structure and function
microtubules- hollow proteins a tubulin B tubulin, intracellular transport , formation ofncillia microfilament- actin protein, form ring structure that divides the cell during mitosis , meosis responsible for shape found on outside intermediate filament- made of collagen, rigidity, intracellular communication
45
difference between eukaryotes and prokaryotes
E= true nucleus, organelles, chromosomes P= before nucleus, no organelles, DNA in 1 circular segment
46
role of pores in nuclear membrane
Aquaeous channel that regulate passage of materials between nucleus and cytoplasm
47
3 main characteristics of the nucleus
genetic material, DNA synthesis (replication), RAN synthesis(transcription)
48
significance or mitochondria
site of aerobic respiration (production of ATP in presence of oxygen) and the apoptosis starts here
49
makeup of mitochondrial matrix
enzymes DNA ribosomes
50
role of cholesterol in cell membrane
liquid crystal configuration
51
3 main characteristics or plasma membrane
assymetey phospholipids intracellular communication, liquid crystal is biological flexibility, mosaic appearance
52
difference between perieral and integral proteins
I= transmembrane span entire membrane hydrophilicaly bonded to the membrane, function is transport across membrane P=attached to one aspect of membrane inside or out hydrophillicly bonded to membrane attached to CH forming a glycoprotein function is receptors enzymes
53
difference between passive and active transport
p=no atp along concentration gradient high to low only small lipid soluble molecules A= atp against concentration gradient Low to high direct yield of atp (primary NA+/K+ pump) leftover atp (NA+ glucose)
54
physiological importance of NA/K pump
The NAK pump pumps 3NA out of the cell and 2K into the cell against concentration of gradient the N AKA TP is very important in establishing the membrane resting potential responsible for the movement of action potential which is critical for innervation
55
What is the significance of cell junctions plus 2 examples
Some organs require selective environments example is the blood brain barrier the heart requires free passage of ions between the cells so it has gap Junction
56
The cellular membrane is composed of
Phospholipids cholesterol proteins and carbohydrates
57
Transportation across the membrane that doesn't require a transporter is called
Diffusion
58
Transportation across the membrane that does not require an active transporter is
Passive transport and diffusion
59
Passive transport and diffusion What is the role of glycolipids in the cellular membrane
Intercellular communication
60
Name of the process by which insertion of particles into the cell results in the shortening of the membrane
endocytosis
61
Process by which one molecule is transported into the cell
uniport
62
exocytosis results in
lengthening
63
Process by which 2 molecule is transported into the cell in the same direction
symport
64
Process by which 2 molecules are transported in-and-out of the cell in the opposite direction
antiport
65
Entry of a glucose molecule in the intestinal brush border is an example of
Symport
66
For the same data entry of glucose what kind of transport is it
secondary active
67
NA/K pump is an example of
antiport
68
what kind of transport is NA/K
primary active
69
LDL entry into the cell is an example of
receptor mediated endocytosis
70
How many ions of K plus enter the cell per each power stroke of the NAK pump
2
71
How many ions of NA plus leave the cell per each power stroke of the NAK pump
3
72
Tight Junction
No passage is allowed
73
From what kind of protein does the tight Junction made of
oclodine
74
gap junction
enable free passage of water soluble molecules
75
What kind of protein are the gap junctions made of
connexin
76
Explain the significance of anchoring junctions
Serves as a point of attachment between neighboring cells and acts as a belt that bound the tissue together also attaches to neighboring cells via the cytoskeleton
77
What kind of proteins are anchoring junctions made of
Cadherins and integrins
78
Which proteins are the anchoring attached to
intermediate filament and actin filament
79
ATP is made of
adenine , ribose, 3 phosphates
80
an enzyme is
A catalyst made of protein, a catalyst made of RNA
81
Describe energy and oxidative coupling significance
ATP catabolism is coupled to anabolism of organic molecules then catabolism of organic molecules is coupled to anabolism of ATP then oxidation of NADH plus H and FAD H2 is coupled to reduction of molecules or glucose derivative then reduction of NAD plus and FAD is coupled to oxidation of molecules
82
Explain the difference between in trust cellular mechanism of aerobic and and anaerobic respiration
Aerobic is O2 present highly efficient produces 36 to 38 ATP and and aerobic has no presence of 02 is less efficient produces only 2 APT
83
2 functions of ATP
Energy and nucleotides AKA RNA building block
84
How many ATP are synthesized during glycolysis per one molecule of glucose
4
85
How many ATP are invested during glycolysis
2
86
How many ATP are gained during on anaerobic respiration from one molecule of glucose
2
87
3 examples of cells that can perform only aerobic glycolysis
white skeletal muscles, kidney medulla, RBC
88
How many NADH are synthesized during the PDH complex phase per one molecule of glucose
2
89
How many GTP (=ATP) Are synthesized during the citric acid cycle AKA Krebs cycle
1
90
How many GTP are synthesized during the citric acid cycle phase from one molecule of glucose
2
91
How many NADH synthesize during the citric acid cycle from one molecule of glucose
6
92
How many FADH2 are synthesize during the citric acid cycle phase from a one molecule of glucose
2
93
Hello many ATP are synthesized in aerobic conditions during the bio energetics from a one molecule of glucose
36-38
94
How does glycolisis provide ATP during fermentation
Pyruvate is reduced by NADH producing NAD+ which keeps glycolysis going
95
Describe the process in the Cori Cycle
GluconeoGenesis in the liver where lactate is converted to pyruvate and then glucose glycolysis in muscles
96
Under aerobic conditions pyruvate is decarboxylated to
acetyl COA
97
the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex
pyruvate and Coa and NAD+ is converted to Acetyl CoA +carbon dioxide +NADH
98
glycogen is
the storage carbohydrate in animals insects and fungj
99
What is the structure and significance of the Elektron transport chain
This phase takes place on top of the inner membrane of the mitochondria or the Crysta the NADH and FADH2 molecules gained from earlier phases are now being oxidized and used to produce ATP molecules by the pumping action of protons to the intermembranous space as a result of the Electron that is being transported through the complex
100
What is the mechanism of action of the Elektron transport chain
redox reactions
101
Describe mechanism of action of ATP synthase
Channel for H+ that enters the atp synthase according to its electro chemical gradient from the inner membranous space to the matrix the energy generated by movement of protons via the ATPase is harvested and transforms to mechanical energy that catalyzes the production of ATP from ADP + P
102
define the term " uncoupling protein "
Uncoupling protein inhibits the ATP synthesis by enabling free passage of H+ into the mitochondrial matrix uncoupling proteins play a role in normal physiology in hibernation for example because the energy from the ETC is used to generate heat instead of producing ATP
103
Describe the significance of ATP/ADP transporter
Transports ATP to the cytoplasm for an ADP that enters the mitochondria
104
what is the end product of anaerobic glycolisis in humans
Lactate that then travels to the liver and goes back to pyruvate and then to glucose and back to the muscle in Corrie cycle
105
oxygen consumption during aerobic catabolism of glucose
Oxygen is the final acceptor of electrons in the Elektron transport chain it received electrons and protons forming a water molecule
106
mechanism of action of cyanide and CO
Cyanide and CO bind complex 4 in the Elektron transport chain instead of oxygen and blocks it completely thus interrupting with the normal cellular respiration
107
chromosome
single piece of DNA genes nucleotides DNA bound proteins package DNA
108
chromosome is made of
proteins and DNA
109
each autosomal cell in the human body has
46 chromosome, 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes, one sex chromosome pair
110
describe cell cycle and significance of each phase
s phase - DNA replication/synthesis ( 46-92 chromosomes) M phase- mitosis/ cell division (92-46 chromosomes) G1 and G2 are preparatory phases ( G1- preparatory phase to S phase , G2 preparatory phase to M phase )
111
difference between autosomal cell and germ cell (regarding the number of chromosomes)
germ cell - 23×1 chromosomes, haploid cell autosomal cell - 23x2 chromosomes, diploid cell
112
3 conditions required for the cell to enter S phase
proper energy source, temperature and proteins
113
how many chromosomes does a cell have before entering M phase
46
114
how many chromosomes does a cell have before entering M phase?
46
115
how many sister chromatids does a cell have before entering M phase ?
92
116
how many tetrads align at the meiotic spindle or the metaphase 1
23
117
centromere
region in sister chromatic where they are attached one to another it is also the location of the kinetochore complex
118
kinetochore
protein structure in eukaryotes which assembles on the centromere and links the chromosome to microtubules polymers fromnyhe miotic spindle during mitosis and meiosis
119
telomere
region of DNA at start and end of each chromosome dictates number of divisions a cell can do protects end of chromosome from deterioration or from fusion with neighboring chromosomes telomere regions deter the degradation of genes near the ends of chromosomes by allowing chromosome ends to shorten which necessarily occurs during chromosome replication without telomeres the genomes would progressively lose info and be turncated after cell division because the synthesis of ozaki strands require RNA primers attaching ahead on the lagging strand over time due to each cell division the telomere ends become shorter
120
miotic spindle
separates sister chromatids/homologous chromosomes into the daughter cells during cell division
121
miotic spindle
separates sister chromatids/homologous chromosomes into the daughter cells during cell division
122
centrioles
microtubules that are involved in the organization of the miotic spindle and in the completion of cytokenisis
123
how many chromosomes does a cell have after meiosis is complete 1 and 2
23
124
name 2 processes in which meiosis occurs in the human body
spermatogenisis and oogenisis
125
how many oocytes are produced during meiosis in a human female
1
126
how many sperms are produced during meiosis in a human male
4
127
during which meiotic phase crossing over occurs?
prophase 1
128
during which meiotic phase crossing over occurs?
prophase 1
129
how many polar bodies are generated in the complete synthesis of an oocyte ?
2
130
during which meiotic /miotic phase nuclear fragmentation occurs
prophase
131
which miotic phase does sister chromatids separate
anaphase
132
which meiotic phase do homologous chromosomes separate
anaphase 1
133
which meiotic phase does sister chromatids separate?
anaphase 2
134
which meiotic phase are the female oocytes arrested?
prophase 1
135
difference between spermatogensis and oogenisis
oogenisis = forms only one primary oocyte that become a mature egg cell (ovum) while two other oocytes form polar bodies (degenerate) it happens in the ovaries. oocytes are arrested in prophase 1 until puberty. occurs from puberty to menopause. spermatogenisis = 4 haploid cells are formed. happens in the testes. occurs from puberty till death.
136
which meiotic phase cytoplasm separates
cytokenisis 1 and cytokenisis 2
137
which phase of mitosis do the chromosomes line up along the middle of the dividing cell
metaphase
138
DNA synthesis occurs in the
S phase
139
1.building blocks of DNA 2.how are they arranged in space 3.what are the names of the bonds between the building block of the same strand and between two different strands?
1. deoxynucleotidses 2.each is made of deoxy ribose sugar phosphate at its 5 carbon and amine base at its 1 carbon. 3. nucleotides in the same strand attached by phosphor-di-ester bond and the bond between 2 strands is H bond
140
enzyme responsible for DNA synthesis /replication in the lagging strand
DNA polymarse
141
enzyme that unwind DNA
helicase
142
enzyme that unwind DNA
helicase
143
enzyme responsible for relieving tension caused by the unwinding of the DNA is called
topoisomerase
144
enzyme responsible for insertion of an DNA primer
primase
145
enzyme responsible for connecting the DNA fragments in the lagging strand
ligase
146
enzyme responsible for error repair
DNA polymarse
147
explain meaning and significance of DNA synthesis
a part of the cell cycle taking place in s phase resulting in two complete DNA molecules
148
difference between leading strand and lagging strand
leading strand = grows in direction of replication form can be directly read by DNA polymarse 3 to 5 new molecule is synthesized in the 5 to 3 direction lagging strand = 5 to 3 grows away from replication form and cannot be read by DNA polymarse in continuous manner therefore DNA polymarse synthesized ozaki fragments
149
DNA packing
at first DNA wraps around histones (H2A H2B H3 H4) creating the beads on a string structures called nucleosomes then 30 nm fibers are formed as a result of the H1 linker histone finally the 30 m3n fibers are arranged into loops along a protein scaffolds to form euchromatin
150
ozaki fragments
when lagging strand is being replicated on the original strand the 5 to 3 pattern must be used this a discontinuity occurs and the ozaki fragments are formed. these ozaki fragments are processed by the replication machinery to produce a continuous strand of DNA and hence a complete daughter DNA helix
151
enzyme responsible for connecting DNA fragments in the lagging strand
ligase
152
enzyme responsible for error repair is called
DNA polymarse
153
limitation of the DNA polymarse
works in 5 to 3 of the synthesized strand , requires RNA primer, requires DNA template strand
154
enzyme responsible for DNA replication in the leading strand
DNA polymarse
155
DNA synthesis is a _process
semi conservative
156
what enzyme replaces RNA primer on the lagging strand with DNA
DNA polymarse 1
157
name of the fragments of the lagging strand
ozakis fragments
158
what enzyme will solve this problem in the lagging strand?
ligase
159
mutation is best described as
a change in DNA sequence
160
difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic transcription
P= occurs only in cytoplasm (DNA-mrna) E= occurs in nucleus (DNA -hrna aka pre mrna) to mrna after those 3 post transcriptional changes
161
redundancy
most of the amino acid has more than one codon (nucleotide triplet) only Met and Trp has only one codon
162
wobble
61 AA encoding codons and roughly 31 tRNA molecule types this is due to the amino acid base inosin at the wobble position in the anticodon if the tRNA which can bind U C and A
163
capping and tailing
make mrnas life longer since once it gets out of nucleus it become a target for digestive enzymes the longer are the tails the longer the mrnas life span and more proteins will be synthesized from it and splicing is editing the mrna. specificies proteins function the removal of introns and connecting the exons generates the final mrna. which then leaves the nucleus to the cytoplasm
164
steps of elongation
1 trna enters A site of ribosome 2 peptidyl transferase enzyme transfers the amino acid from the P site to the A site where the amino acids are bonded to eachother by a peptide bond 3 whole complex moves a triplet so that the elongating chain rest on the P site and the A site is free to receive a new tRNA
165
UTR
untranslated region at the 5 direction (upstream to the gene) it serves as the binding site for the ribosome small unit the small sub unit travels upon it and reads it until it reaches the start codon (AUG)
166
protein sorting
targeting newly synthesized protein to it's functional site happens in the golgi
167
protein synthesis occurs mostly at the
G1 and G2 phase
168
enzyme responsible for transcription
DNA dependent RNA polymarse
169
enzyme responsible for trna binding to an amino acid
aminoacyl tRNA synthase
170
enzyme responsible for adding an Amino acid to the lengthening polypeptide chain
peptidyl transferace
171
the enzyme responsible for adding an Amino acid to the lengthening polypeptide chain
peptidyl transferace
172
organelles where translation occurs
ribosome
173
protein synthesis is _ _ and _
universal , redundant and wobbled
174
ribosome is made of
protein rRNA small sub unit large subunit
175
transcription occurs at locations
5 to 3 direction
176
stages of translation are
initiation elongation termination
177
initiation of transcription requires
promoter transcriptional factors DNA dependent RNA polymarse
178
what is the start codon
AUG
179
for what amino acid does the start codon code for
met
180
the initiation complex is made of
small and large ribosomal subunits. mrna tRNA with methionine
181
termination of translation occurs when
ribosome reaches a stop codon
182
what is true regarding transfer DNA
binds specifically to mrna and amino acids
183
termination of transcription process happens when a stop codon is reached true or false
F
184
stop codon encode for the specific kind of amino acid true or false
false
185
start codon encodes for the amino acid methionine in eukaryotes as well as in prokaryotes
true
186
how does synthesis of proteins that are destined to be secreted differ from that of proteins with functions inside the cell
proteins destined to be secreted have a signal sequence
187
what is produced during transcription in eukaryotes
hrna
188
what is produced during translation in eukaryotes
proteins
189
chromosome
linear segment of DNA and protein
190
a somatic human cell at G1 phase of the cell cycle contains
23 pairs of homologous chromosomes and 44 autosomal chromosomes and two sex chromosomes
191
phenotype is
physical and chemical expression of the genotype
192
an example of a homozygous dominant
AA
193
an example of a homozygous recessive
aa
194
an example of a heterozygote
Aa
195
karyotype is
chromosomal map of a cell
196
in complete dominance of allele A over allele a heterozygote Aa will have which type of phenotype
the same as the dominant homozygote
197
the physical appearance and properties of an organism which is the expression of its genetic makeup is called the
phenotype
198
the offspring of a cross breeding of two equal homozygotes (monohybrid cross)
must be again homozygotes
199
gene
heredity unit composed of a sequence of DNA which occupies a specific location on a chromosome and determines particular characteristics in the organism
200
allele
a particular form of a gene that is found in a specific location on a specific chromosome
201
genotype
the sum total of all the alleles present in an individual both expressed and not expressed for the specified trait
202
law of segregation
in the meiotic process homologous chromosomes separate before gametes are formed (each gene is comprised of 2 alleles a parent only give a one allele to a child so child received 2 in total )
203
law of independent assortment
genes of different traits assort independently of one another during gamete production alleles of different genes assort independently of one another this accounts for genetic variability
204
dominant allele
only one allele of a gene necessary to express the trait
205
recessive allele
both alleles of a gene must be identical to express the trait (expressed only homozygote )
206
karyotiping
characterization of the chromosomal complement of an individual including number form and size karyotiping may reveille chromosomal abnormalities diseases intrauterine like down syndrome kneifleter syndrome 13/18 tridonmy etc
207
what is the role of the promoter
binds the rna polymerse
208
promoter is a
DNA
209
role of the operator
binds the repressor protein
210
role of operator in eukaryote
same as in prokaryotes
211
role of tata box in eukaryote binds
binds rna polymerse and transcription factors, core sequence of the promoter
212
role of lactose in the lacoperon
acts as an inducer by binding the repressor protein and disabling it
213
role of tryptophan in the tropoperon
act as a repressor by binding the repressor protein and enables it
214
when growing e coli on a growing medium containing only glucose the mRNA level of the enzymes responsible for the catabolism of lactose will be
basal amount (small)
215
when growing e coli on a growing medium containing only lactose the mRNA level of the enzymes responsible for the catabolism of lactose will be
high level of mrna
216
When the levels of glucose are high the level of Camp in a prokaryotes cell will be
low
217
role of camp in the lacoperon
binds the cap protein and enables it
218
rb (retino blastoma) is
a tumor suppressor protein
219
The role of catabolic activating protein in the lacoperon
Finds the promoter when camp levels are high causing an increase in the promoter
220
gene regulation
Defines the rate by which genes are transcripted and/or translated to form proteins it is very important to define the characteristics of each cell and in tumor processes
221
difference in gene regulation in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
P= simple cell, simple needs for homeostasis happens in cytoplasm E= complex cell, fine tuning happens in the nucleus and cytoplasm
222
What is the role of the repressor
Binds the operator causing a decrease in the amount of transcription by the RNA polymers it works by creating a spherical interference for the RNA polymarse
223
Operon
Is that Polygene sequence found in prokaryote the operon is a family of genes which encodes for a common function like the catabolism of lactose or for the synthesis of TRP amino acid the operon gene sits under a common promoter and under a joint regulation
224
operon is in both prokaryotes and eukaryotes
false
225
LAC operon is in an induced or repressed system
both
226
TRP peron is an induced or repressed system
repressed
227
transcription factors in eukaryotes
8 enzymes essential for the initiation elongation and terminations of the transcription process
228
significance of the poly A tail on the mRNA in eukaryotes
Stabilization of the MRNA upon entering the cytoplasm a longer poly a tail will result in and MRNA with a loner lifetime
229
what are enhancers and silencers in eukaryotes
enhancers and silencers are special regions of DNA found thousands of base pairs upstream or downstream Of the gene and affect the level of transcription for the certain gene
230
Mutation caused by the substitution of nucleotides and result in a different type of amino acid is
missense mutations
231
,Mutation caused by the substitution of nucleotides and result in the same kind of amino acid or an amino acid with the same properties is called
Silently mutation
232
Mutation caused by the substitution of nucleotides and result in a new codon that encodes for a STOP codon upstream to the original S TOP codon of the gene is called
nonsense mutation
233
Insertion of a single nucleotide in the replication process will result in a
Frame shift mutation
234
deletion of a single nucleotide in the replucation process will result in a
frame shift mutation
235
Deletion of a 2 nucleotide in the replication process will result in a
Frame shift mutation
236
deletion of a 3 nucleotide in the replication process will result in a
could be missense or nonsense or silent mutation
237
name two autosomal recessive diseases
cystic fibrosis tay sachs G6p deficiency albinisn
238
cystic fibrosis
AR disease
239
hemophilia is
XR disease
240
Huntington is
AD disease
241
vitamin D resistance is
XD disease
242
down syndrome is
trisomy 21
243
patau syndrome
trisomy 13
244
Edward syndrome
trisomy 18
245
Turner syndrome
monotony
246
kleinfelter syndrome
trisomy XXY
247
Cri du chat syndrome is caused by
deletion
248
mutation
change in DNA sequence in a gene or chromosome of an organism. can result inn the creation of a new trait not found in the parental type mutation can be silent with no effect harmful in rare cases
249
germ line mutation
Is a mutation that is further transmitted to the progeny whereas a somatic mutation is an acquired mutation frequently caused by environmental factors such as UV light and smoking
