All lectures dbe

Question 1

What can particle size affect?

Answer 1

• Flowability
• Solubility
• Bioavailability
• Settling rate of suspensions
• Tolerability of some dosage forms

Question 2

Give milling methods

Answer 2

• Cut
• Attrition
• Impact
• Compact
• Combined attrition and impact

Question 3

Impact methods

Answer 3

Vibration mills, hammer mills

Question 4

Compression methods

Answer 4

end runner mill, roller mill

Question 5

combined impact and attrition

Answer 5

pin mill, ball mill

Question 6

what are impact methods used for?

Answer 6

brittle. materials

Question 7

what are attrition methods used for?

Answer 7

ointjments , solid in suspensions and pastes

Question 8

What are cutter mills used for?

Answer 8

Elastic, fibrous materials like root or wood

Question 9

WHat are the methids to analyse particle size?

Answer 9

Direct methods - seiving, micropscopy. Indirect methods - permeability, sedimentation rate

Question 10

What are the different particle size distributions?

Answer 10

• Monosized distribution
• Positively skewed
• Bimodal
• Normal

Question 11

what are the microsocpy mathods?

Answer 11

Light methods, Electron microco[py

Question 12

Do vegeatables contain vitamin B12?

Answer 12

No, only if they contaminated by microorganisms

Question 13

What is the cellular requirement of b12?

Answer 13

2 reactions in the body.
1. DNA synthesis
2. Methionine Synthesis

Question 14

Where is intrinsic factor produced?

Answer 14

In the parietal cells

Question 15

What happens if an inadequate amount of B12 is absorbed?

Answer 15

Megaloblastic anaemia

Question 16

What is pernicious anemia?

Answer 16

Autoimmune atrophic gastritis. Destruction of parietal cells, leading to a lack of intrinsic factor. Can also be caused by antibodies directed against intrinsic factor

Question 17

What does pernicois anaemia cause?

Answer 17

achlorhydria - prodution of gastric acid is low or absent

Question 18

What drugs cause b12 deficiency?

Answer 18

Metformin, cholchicine, PPI, H2 antagonist, oral contraceptives, HRT

Question 19

What are the cellular requirements of folate?

Answer 19

crucial for the transport on one carbon unit to amino acid, nucleotides and other biomolecules

Question 20

absorption of folates

Answer 20

Dietary Sources: Folate is obtained from the diet through the consumption of foods rich in folate, such as leafy green vegetables, legumes, fruits, fortified cereals, and liver.

Polyglutamate to Monoglutamate Conversion: In the food sources, folates exist as polyglutamates, which are multiple glutamate molecules linked together. Before absorption, these polyglutamates need to be converted into monoglutamates (single glutamate molecule) to become bioavailable.

Folate Hydrolysis: In the duodenum, polyglutamate folates are hydrolyzed by the enzyme folate conjugase (or folate hydrolase) into monoglutamate forms. This step is essential to render folates absorbable.

Active Transport: The monoglutamate folates are then actively transported across the apical membrane (the surface facing the lumen of the intestine) of the intestinal cells. This active transport mechanism requires energy and is regulated by carrier proteins, including the reduced folate carrier (RFC) and the proton-coupled folate transporter (PCFT).

Intracellular Processing: Inside the intestinal cells, folates undergo further processing, including the conversion of folate derivatives to the biologically active form, 5-methyltetrahydrofolate (5-MTHF). 5-MTHF is the primary circulating form of folate in the blood.

Transport to the Circulatory System: Once converted to 5-MTHF, folates are transported across the basolateral membrane (the surface facing the blood) of the intestinal cells and then enter the bloodstream.

Transport in the Blood: In the blood, 5-MTHF is bound to carrier proteins, primarily albumin and other specific folate-binding proteins.

Tissue Uptake: 5-MTHF is taken up by various tissues and cells throughout the body, where it participates in essential cellular processes, as described in the previous response

Question 21

Metformin mechanism of action?

Answer 21

Inhibition of mitochondrial respiratory chain complex 1
- Inhibits ATP synthesis
- Increases AMP
- Activates AMPK
- Phosphorylation and inhibition of CRTC2
- Inhibition of gluconeogenesic genes

Question 22

What are the side effects of metformin?

Answer 22

GI side effects
B12 deficiency
Lactic acidosis

Question 23

Does metformin cause hypoglycaemia?

Answer 23

No

Question 24

Name sulfonylureas

Answer 24

Glibenclamide
Glicazide

Question 25

What are the side effects of sulfonylureas

Answer 25

Hypoglycaemia
Weight gain

Question 26

When should meglitinides be taken?

Answer 26

Before meals

Question 27

What is the difference between meglitinides and sulfonylureas?

Answer 27

Meglitinides have a rapid onset and short duration of action

Question 28

What are the side effects of thiazidionideiones?

Answer 28

Water retention and weight gain

Question 29

Name GLP1 analogues

Answer 29

Exenatide
Liraglutide
Semaglutide

Question 30

Name DPP4 inhibitors

Answer 30

Linagliptin. Alogliptin. sitagliptin

Question 31

What can reverse the symptoms of t2d

Answer 31

Very low calorie diet

Question 32

What are the tests for pancreatitis?

Answer 32

Faecal elastase
Fat soluble vitamins

Question 33

What are the mechanisms that inhibit the insulin pathway?

Answer 33

• PTP1b
• PTEN
• PKC
• DAG
• Ceramide

Question 34

which patients are thioziodinediones contraindicated in?

Answer 34

heart failure, fractures, haematuria

Question 35

What drugs are third line for diabetes?

Answer 35

GLP1 analogues