AICP_History Flashcards
Andres Duany
1982 New Urbanism - Seaside, Andres Duany
Appalachian Regional Commission, 1963
Federal, state and local government partnership initially formed in 1963 to create economic development in Appalachia � 420 counties, 13 states, 8 independent cities
Robert Lang
He authored over 150 academic and professional publications on a wide range of topics and developed many new urban planning concepts such as �boomburbs,� �edgeless cities,� and �megapolitan areas.
Vieux Carr� Commission
New Orleans - Vieux Carr� Commission in 1937 to maintain the French Quarter
Neighborhood Unit Concept
(Clarence Perry), Inspired by Garden Cities. Promoted neighborhood community and recreation centers. Outlined in The Regional Survey of New York and Its Environs and centered around the following design guidelines:1. The school should be in the center of the neighborhood so each child did not walk more than ¼ mile and did not have to cross major roadways. The neighborhood should support between 5,000 and 9,000 residents and the school should have a large play area that the entire community could use.2. Major arterial roads would be located along the perimeter to eliminate through traffic. This would prevent the neighborhood from being split by hard to cross roads.3. Internal streets would be curvilinear for aesthetic and safety concerns. They would discourage through-traffic and be distinguished from arterial streets.4. Local shopping would be placed along the neighborhood’s perimeter or at the main entrance so non-local traffic would not intrude in the neighborhood.5. At least 10% of land area would be dedicated to parks and open space so there would be more opportunities for play and community socialization.
Development of DC
1791 Pierre L’Enfant (hired by Washington), designed as orthogonal, gridded street network with diagonal avenues connecting key civic buildings and spaces visually. East-west buildings had letters, N/S had numbers. Plan would be modified by McMillan in 1901 to include Mall
McMillan Plan
1902 The Senate Park Commission wrote the McMillan Plan, a landmark comprehensive planning document, to revive and update the L’Enfant Plan for Washington, D.C. The McMillan Plan focused on the city’s parks and monuments. It redesigned the National Mall and determined the locations of the Lincoln Memorial, Ulysses S. Grant Memorial, Union Station, and U.S. Department of Agriculture Building, among other changes. The McMillan Plan is still the basis of most of Washington, D.C.’s planning, and helped boost the career of Daniel Burnham, who worked on the plan. It could be considered the first real expression in the United States of the City Beautiful movement, which emphasized grandeur and beautification in planning.
Charles Winslow
1920s - defined public health as science and art of preventing disease, organizing community efforts for sanitation, controlling infections, and educating public, and developing social machinery to ensure individual in the community a standard of living.
Sherry Arnstein
1969 book- “A Ladder of Citizen Participation” about the hierarchy of public involvement. Arnstein’s work influenced how planners and communities go about engaging the public in the planning and decision-making process, provided the theoretical framework for advocacy planning, and organized planners’ understanding of meaning public participation as a way for citizens to be equal partners in shaping programs and plans.
Edge City
1985 on, when a concentration of businesses, shopping and entertainment forms outside the traditional urban area in what had been considered the suburban or rural area of the city, making it more self-contained. Fairfax VA is an example.
5 Rules:
1) must have more than 5 million sq. f.t of offices for 20-50,000 workers
2) Must have retail space exceeding 600,000 sq. ft.
3) More jobs than bedrooms
4) must be perceived as one place by the population
5) should be nothing like a city 30 years prior
JANE JACOBS
A journalist and author rather than an academic, Jacobs was a master communicator who perhaps did more to popularize critical thinking about cities than any other individual. Her 1961 bestseller The Death and Life of Great American Cities sent shockwaves through the planning and architecture establishment by dismissing the grand plans of “the Radiant Garden City Beautiful” and pointing the way toward more human-centered urban design and bottom-up decision-making.Death and Life was a love letter to many of the things planners and other bureaucrats had been trying to eradicate with urban renewal: crowded neighborhoods, chaotic streets, jarring mixtures of people and land uses. Jacobs’s most high-profile enemy was Robert Moses, whose career she helped end with her fierce opposition to the demolition of Penn Station (at which she failed) and the Lower Manhattan Expressway (at which she was successful).Instead of freeways and superblocks, Jacobs advocated for short blocks and varied buildings, with small businesses at ground level and apartments above, much like the urban fabric of Manhattan’s West Village, where she lived. Jacobs was able to speak about cities in emotional terms, referencing people as often as she did structures and spaces. The street was a “ballet” in which everyone had their role—the butcher who kept your spare keys, the stay-at-home mom keeping an eye on the children playing in the street.Jacobs’s writing and advocacy were so compelling that they helped spur an anti-freeway, anti-urban-renewal revolt across the country, which largely ended sweeping Modernist planning and vastly expanded community control over land-use decisions (a mixed blessing).While on most counts she has been lauded as a visionary, more recent assessments find points of criticism. Jacobs’s view of her New York neighborhood was, indeed, idyllic, largely glossing over problems like housing affordability and segregation. She failed to grasp how community control over land use could exacerbate those problems. Contemporary urbanists such as Sharon Zukin have drawn a connection between Jacobs’s sensibility and that of the post-urban-crisis gentrifier.But her legacy is still being plumbed for wisdom. Jacobs—who moved to Toronto in 1968 and remained in that city until her death—anticipated the rise of right-wing populism due to growing economic inequality and the erosion of civic institutions in her final book, Dark Age Ahead.
Father of Modern Housing Code
According to available information, Lawrence Veiller is widely considered the “Father of the Modern Housing Code” due to his significant contributions and writings on tenement housing reform, advocating for improved housing standards and regulations. Key points about Lawrence Veiller:
Focus on Tenement Housing:
He was a prominent advocate for reform regarding the poor living conditions in tenement houses, which led to the development of modern housing codes.
Extensive Writings:
Veiller authored several books and publications on tenement housing issues, which heavily influenced housing regulations.
Impact on City Planning:
His work significantly impacted the field of city planning by pushing for better housing standards within urban environments.
APA creation
ACIP and ASPO joined to for the APA in 1978
JANE ADDAMS
Addams, along with Ellen Gates Starr, founded Chicago’s Hull House, a woman-run “settlement house” designed to improve the lives of immigrants and the poor in Chicago’s Near West Side. A cross between a community college, rec center, and clinic, Hull House offered shelter for victims of domestic violence and language classes for recently arrived immigrants. It also included Chicago’s first public playground, in accordance with Addams’s belief that children’s play made for happier, healthier adults.Addams was a charter member of the American Sociological Association and closely collaborated with the Chicago School of Sociology. She and her staff collected detailed sociological data about their neighborhood, which they used to advocate for women’s rights and reforms on immigration and child labor.Today she is considered a founder of the field of social work. In her 1907 essay “Utilization of Women in City Government,” Addams wrote that the mandate of a modern city government primarily encompasses “civic housekeeping,” including issues like sanitation, social welfare, education, and combating vice. Because these urban problems correspond to traditional women’s roles, a more humanitarian city must include women leaders, she argued.In her later years, she became a prominent pacifist, founding the Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom, for which she won the 1931 Nobel Peace Prize, becoming the first American woman to do so.
Tennessee Valley Authority
America’s experiment in river basin planning. The Tennessee Valley Authority provides electricity for 153 local power companies serving 10 million people in Tennessee and parts of six surrounding states, as well as directly to 58 large industrial customers and federal installations. We don’t get taxpayer funding; rather, our revenues come from sales of electricity. TVA also provides flood control, navigation, and land management for the Tennessee River system and assists local power companies and regional governments with their economic development efforts. Congress initiated
Equity Planning
As a result of advocacy planning shortcomings, Norman Krumholz adopted Equity Planning in the 1970s. Equity planning made low-income needs the ultimate priority and shifted the goals of a planner to redistributing power, resources, or participation away from the elite and towards the working class or low-income citizens. Plans are evaluated on improvements to quality of life factors, as opposed to the delivery of services. Saul Alinsky, regarded as the Father of Community Organizing, is best known for his book �Rules for Radicals.� His main focus was improving living conditions in poor communities. Alan Altshuler also supported the notion that planners could not be objective and to be most effective, must be involved in the politics of planning.
Charles Abrams
As an international housing consultant, Charles Abrams had a major impact on housing policy after World War II. He was a longtime adviser to the United Nations and, in the 1950s, he chaired the New York State Commission Against Discrimination. In the mid-1960s, he headed a task force that recommended consolidating New York’s housing activities, a proposal that led to the creation of the New York City Housing and Development Administration. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1993.
Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr
As the designer of iconic public parks and some of America’s earliest suburbs, Olmsted became known as the founding father of landscape architecture. In fact, the polymathic Olmsted helped coin the term. Architect Calvert Vaux invited him to jointly enter the competition to design Manhattan’s Central Park. Plan combined elements of the English with more formal, geometric French landscaping. Olmsted was committed to providing high-quality, truly public spaces for the enjoyment of all, �a principle not widely held at the time.After spending two years during the Civil War as head of the U.S. Sanitary Commission, a relief agency, Olmsted reunited with his collaborator Vaux. Olmsted & Vaux would design Prospect Park in Brooklyn, Chicago’s Riverside parks. Olmsted went on to work on Boston’s Emerald Necklace and the 1893 Chicago World’s Fair, along with numerous other parks, parkways, and university campuses. Also designed for first suburbs like Riverside.
Camillo Sittee
Austrian artist and City Planner, Sitte was one of the first urban writers to consciously emphasize the value of irregularity in the urban form. He challenged, among other things, a growing tendency toward rigid symmetry in contemporary urban design, including the isolated placement of churches and monuments in large, open plots.
FREDERICK BAIR JR
Author of The Text of a Model Zoning Ordinance. He also refined the land-use intensity system, which he first adapted to Norfolk, Virginia. Besides writing three editions of Model Zoning, he wrote commentaries for Land Use Law & Zoning Digest, was a founder of the Florida Planning and Zoning Association (1950), and practiced professionally, first with the Florida Development Commission and then as an independent consultant at his own firm, Bair & Abernathy.
George Perkins Marsh
Authored “Man and Nature” in 1864. recognized as first conservationist
DESIGN OF CITIES (BACON)
Bacon identifies eight elements of ‘Involvement’ in Architecture and Urban Design. To identify these elements, Bacon utilizes Francesco Guardi’s painting Architectural Capriccio. Describing these elements as functions of design, he argues the urban designer should be aware of these elements and use them as tools when developing a ‘design idea’ of what the city or place ought to look like.
Meeting the sky – building elements to create skylines and identity.Meeting the ground – to give a quality of stability and definition.
Points in space – which interplay to create tension and dynamic spatial harmony.
Recession planes – framing and creating drama, scale and position for the viewer.
Design in depth – creating perspective and a sense of movement within space.
Ascent and descent – levels producing anticipation and pleasure.
Convexity and concavity – the interplay of positive and negative forms to shape volume.
Relationship to people – human-scale design to connect and involve.
MODERN HOUSING
BAUER - Published in 1934, Bauer’s Modern Housing has been widely acknowledged as one of the most important books on housing of the twentieth century, laying out the recent developments in European modernist housing for an American audience. Bauer would become one of the leading “housers” in the United States, lucidly and passionately arguing for the provision of high-quality planned public housing between the 1930s and 1960s.
T.J. Kent
Bay Area Planner. one of the founders of what is now Greenbelt Alliance, a Bay Area non-profit citizens’ regional planning and conservation organization, and helped organized the Association of Bay Area Governments (ABAG) in 1961. He later catalyzed a campaign to establish a limited function regional government in the Bay Area. However his emphasis gradually moved to preservation of greenbelt.
Thomas Adams
British-born planner Thomas Adams supervised work on the 1929 Regional Plan of New York and Environs. Adams was a prolific designer of low-density residential developments that were commonly referred to as “garden suburbs.” Upon returning to Great Britain, he served as one of the early presidents of the Institute of Landscape Architects, which became the Landscape Institute. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1989.
REPORT ON MANUFACTURERS
By: Alexander Hamilton, 1791Hamilton discusses the importance of protective tariffs for the manufacturing industry to support industrial development.
Tomorrow: a peaceful path to real reform
By: Ebenezer Howard, 1898This book initiated the Garden City movement. Howard’s vision was a place with the benefits of a town (opportunity, amusement and high wages) and the country (beauty, fresh air and low rents). His “Three Magnets” concept addressed the question “Where will the people go?”: town, country, or towncountry.
Carrying out the City Plan (1914)
By: Flavel Shurtleff, 1914.This book was the first major textbook on city planning. The textbook focused on design of municipal improvements like parks, playgrounds, public squares, parkways, streets, and the placement public buildings.
Principles of Scientific Management
By: Frederick Winslow Taylor, 1911Taylor’s publication outlined the ideas of the Efficiency Movement of the early 20th century, where leaders strived to reduce waste and implement best practices for mechanical, economic, and social improvement. His work heavily influenced today’s field of industrial engineering.
American System (1818)
By: Henry Clay, 1818Clay’s “American System” involved a tariff toprotect/promote American industry; a national bank to support commerce; and federal subsidies for roads, canals, and internal improvements required to encourage the development of the national economy.
The Making of Urban America (1965)
By: John Reps, 1965John Reps discusses European influence on earlycommunities and presents case studies of American cities and the unique factors impacting their development.
Local Planning Administration (1941)
By: Ladislas Segoe, 1941This book was the first in the Green Book Series produced by the International City/County Management Association. Segoeencouraged planning and government be integrated in order to be most credible.
PLANNING OF THE MODERN CITY (1916)
By: Nelson Lewis, 1916.Planning of the Modern City uses a systems method of planning, calling on engineers and planners to each consider the other field in their approach to physical problems.
Cities in Evolution
By: Patrick Geddes, 1915Patrick Geddes, considered the Father of Regional Planning, published Cities in Evolution, which was an introduction to town planning and civics. Concept of “region” created here
WACKER’S MANUAL OF THE PLAN OF CHICAGO (1912)
By: Walter Moody, 1912This book was adopted as a textbook for eighth graders in Chicago and is believed to be the first formal educational tool for city planning.
New Deal Programs
Civilian Conservation Corps: CCC critical in development of environmental projects, including planting trees and constructing trails to transform national and state parks system. Works Progress Admin: constructed public buildings and roadsTennessee Valley Authority. Built dams to control flooding and developing the rural areas in Tennessee Valley to help farms and bring industries to area
Saul Alinsky:
community organizing � Back of the Yards neighborhood (1930s) � Rules for Radicals (1971)
Erie Canal creation
Completed in 1825, Why it was created:
The canal connected the Great Lakes to the Atlantic Ocean, making it easier to transport goods and people.
The canal reduced the cost of shipping and travel times.
The canal opened up the Midwest and Great Lakes to settlement.
What it meant:
The Erie Canal transformed New York City into the country’s main seaport.
It helped New York become the Empire State, a leader in population, industry, and economic strength.
The canal was a central part of the development of American national identity.
Broadacre City
Concept by Frank Lloyd Wright in Disappearing City - each family would be given one acre of land and transport would be reliant on car. Opposite of transit oriented development and similar to Edge City
Public Works Administration (PWA)
constructed in 1934 during Great Depression (New Deal era). Provided 85% of the cost of public housing projects, first federally supported housing program. Replaced by US Housing Authority, run by Catherine Bauer. Gave local housing authorities power of eminent domaine to acquire property and gave funds to construct public housing. Funding from USHA was only for households who had been in poor conditions and the rent could not exceed a predetermined percentage of the household income
Joel Garreau
Created concept of “Edge City”. An edge city is a concentration of business, shopping, and entertainment outside a traditional downtown or central business district, in what had previously been a suburban, residential or rural area.
Father of City Planning
Daniel Burnham
DANIEL BURNHAM
Daniel Burnham was an architect, urban designer, and director of works for the 1893 World’s Fair. In his Chicago architecture practice, Burnham and partner John Wellborn Root designed some of the then-tallest buildings in America, precursors to the skyscraper like the Moorish-Venetian Rookery Building, completed in 1888.At the World’s Fair, Burnham masterminded the lavish “White City,” visited by some 12 million people. This set the stage for the City Beautiful movement, which sought to unify architecture, street, and landscape design into a comprehensive aesthetic vision, using neoclassical architecture to promote moral and social order among the urban citizenry. The most visible legacy of the City Beautiful are the grand civic centers Burnham went on to design in numerous American cities, including San Francisco, Los Angeles, Denver, and Philadelphia.The scope of Burnham’s vision was vast, encompassing the city as a whole. “Make no little plans,” he is famously quoted as saying, “they have no magic to stir men’s blood and probably themselves will not be realized. Make big plans; aim high in hope and work.”He created sweeping street redesigns for many American cities in the early 1900s—essentially Haussmannization projects, with long diagonal boulevards connecting networks of monumental squares and roundabouts. Most were not implemented. The partially implemented 1909 Plan of Chicago was the first comprehensive plan for a growing city in the United States. It called for lakefront improvements and a new highway system, among other changes. Burnham’s advocacy was key to Chicago’s lakefront being set aside as public parkland.
City Beautiful
Daniel Burnham: Emerged as a way to address high rates of poverty, blight and crime. Believed that a beautiful city would inspire citizens to live more virtuous lives. Included:- tree lined boulevards- uniform building setbacks and heights- waterfront parks- civic buildings and museums centered around parks. Inspired by Haussmann’s work in Paris. Exampled in 1909 Chicago Plan, McMillan Plan (1901) and White City
Clarence Stein and Henry Wright
Designed Radburn NJ using garden city design, focusing on pedestrian separation from cars through green belts and cul de sacs
James Rouse
Developer of shopping mall
Garden Suburb
Different than a garden city since all residential. Hampstead was a garden city that basically became a suburb. Where cul de sacs were invented.
WEB DU BOIS
Du Bois was a writer, sociologist, civil rights advocate, the first African American to earn a doctorate from Harvard, and a founder of the NAACP. Although The Souls of Black Folk (1903) is better known, his earlier book The Philadelphia Negro was the first sociological study of a black community in the United States. To understand Philadelphia’s segregated Seventh Ward—“a city within a city”—Du Bois analyzed its street life, housing stock, and community institutions, and conducted detailed surveys of residents.The problems Du Bois observed in the Seventh Ward (and which, he noted, neighboring white communities willfully ignored) would persist for the next century and beyond. He famously stated that “The problem of the twentieth century is the problem of the color-line,” and helped the public see that divide more clearly, not just through words. At the 1900 Exposition Universelle in Paris, Du Bois exhibited 60 remarkably modern hand-drawn charts and maps—what we would call infographics—on black life in Georgia. Later, he became a socialist and pan-Africanist. He died at the age of 95 in Ghana, where he was working on an encyclopedia of the African diaspora.
Garden City
Ebenezer Howard’s movement, wrote book “Tomorrow, a Peaceful path to real reform”. First was Letchworth. Self-contained cities of 32,000 on 6,000 acres, with density of of 30,000 on 1,000 acres. - surrounded by greenbelts and owned through coops. Influenced New Town Movement, developed Forest Hills Garden, Sunnyside Gardens, and Park Forest and Radburn NJ. Used Cul de sacs and greenways to separate pedestrians from cars.
EDMUND BACON
Edmund N. Bacon, Philadelphia’s planning director from 1949 to 1970, is honored for bringing national attention to the rebuilding of the American city in the post-World War II era. In Design of Cities, Bacon explains his philosophy of design, derived in part from his study of great urban design achievements of the past, and shows how it applies to the revived design of mid-20 century Central City Philadelphia. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1993.
Father of Zoning
Edward Bassett
EDWARD BASSETT
Edward Bassett - chaired the commission that produced New York City’s landmark 1916 zoning code plan. Participant in a wide array of civic boards and commissions, including the National Conference on City Planning, a forerunner of the American Planning Association.
City Efficient Movement
Emphasized technical details in planning and highlightd engineers and lawyers in city planning, rather than architects. Ended with introduction of automobile shifting priorities to public works projects instead of civic buildings. Court decisions supporting the implementation of land use controls, zoning, and subdivision regulations became the mechanisms for city planning
1st historic preservation ordinance
enacted in Charleston, SC in 1931
Aldo Leopold
father of ecology, called for wilderness protection
Gifford Pinchot
first chief of US Forest Service.
Lawrence Veiller
First Housing reformer and founded National Housing Administration
1st Tenement Housing
First was Dumbbell in 1855 in NYC. Poor lighting, no ventilation, brought increased attention to public health and public health movement.
EBENEZER HOWARD
Following the long English pastoral tradition and a personal stint as a homesteader in Nebraska, the self-educated stenographer Ebenezer Howard was attuned to the “keen and pure delights” of the countryside. But he was also a Londoner, and a realist. He understood the economic forces that were driving urbanization at the end of the 19th century, and the miserable conditions that poverty and overcrowding had created for many of his fellow city-dwellers.With his concept of the Garden City, Howard thus attempted to marry the benefits of city and country living. In his much-read book Garden Cities of To-Morrow (1902), Howard presented careful diagrams of these new 6,000-acre towns, which would be built on open land and linked by railroads. The inner ring of the city would contain a central park and civic institutions, followed by houses and commercial avenues, and finally industrial and agricultural uses at the fringes.Amazingly, Howard brought his dream to fruition in the form of two towns near London: Letchworth and Welwyn Garden City. But even more significantly, Howard’s vision of building new towns from scratch, segregating land uses, and balancing urban activity with rural fresh air and nature proved tremendously influential during the 20th century’s waves of suburbanization. The Garden City was an inspiration to Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright, who, in their respective utopian blueprints, saw the automobile as a means to create decentralized cities with separated land uses at a large scale. According to critics such as Jane Jacobs, Howard’s theories helped inculcate an anti-urban bias in American city planning.
Patrick Geddes
Following the philosophies of Auguste Comte and Frederic LePlay, he introduced the concept of “region” to architecture and planning and coined the term “conurbation”. Later, he elaborated “neotechnics” as the way of remaking a world apart from over-commercialization and money dominanc. He was a proponent of the Comte-LePlay view of the interconnectedness of city region as a potentially autonomous unit. He adopted Spencer’s theory that the concept of biological evolution could be applied to explain the evolution of society, and drew on Le Play’s analysis of the key units of society as constituting “Lieu, Travail, Famille” (“Place, Work, Family”), but changing the last from “family” to “folk”. In this theory, the family is viewed as the central “biological unit of human society” from which all else develops. According to Geddes, it is from “stable, healthy homes” providing the necessary conditions for mental and moral development that come beautiful and healthy children who are able “to fully participate in life”.Geddes drew on Le Play’s circular theory of geographical locations presenting environmental limitations and opportunities that in turn determine the nature of work. His central argument was that physical geography, market economics and anthropology were related, yielding a “single chord of social life [of] all three combined”.
1901 Plan
For DC, part of City beautiful movement
Sierra Club
Founded by John Muir in 1892.
Frederick Adams
Frederick J. Adams (1901–1980) founded the city and regional planning department at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1932. Adams insisted that the planning program should be interdisciplinary while also making sure that the field maintained its own identity. His students helped to create university planning programs at the University of California at Berkeley, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, Ohio State University, and Pennsylvania State University at State College. Designated a National Planning Pioneer in 1996.
Frederick Law Olmsted Jr.
Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. followed in his father’s footsteps, becoming a notable American landscape architect and city planner. He was best known for his wildlife conservation efforts and contributions to national parks. He worked on projects in Acadia, Everglades, and Yosemite National Parks. President Theodore Roosevelt would appoint him to serve on the McMillan Commission.
Jared Diamond
Guns, Germs and SteelDiamond is commonly referred to as a polymath, stemming from his knowledge in many fields including anthropology, ecology, geography, and evolutionary biology.[
HARLAND BARTHOLOMEW
Harland Bartholomew was the first planner ever to be put on staff by an American city. It was Newark, New Jersey, that hired Bartholomew to work on a comprehensive plan in 1914, a year after he started his planning career. His 1932 book, Urban Land Uses, is considered a classic in quantitative analysis.
Jacob Riis
How the Other Half Lives. Took photos and documented how literally crappy it was in the tenements.
1932 Broad Acre City - Frank Lloyd Wright
In 1932, Frank Lloyd Wright introduced his Broadacre City concept in his book The Disappearing City. Broadacre City was a plan for a decentralized community that Wright believed would improve the lives of people by providing more space, air, light, and silence.
What was Broadacre City?
A plan for a decentralized community with beautiful housing and at least one acre of land for each family
A reaction to the crowded, polluted, and poorly designed industrial cities of the time
A vision for “urban renewal” that involved destroying the “urban” part of the city and starting over
Why did Wright propose Broadacre City?
Wright was frustrated with the industrial city, especially New York City during the Great Depression
He believed that cities were cramped, poorly designed, and lacked essential elements
He was looking for a way to improve the quality of life for people
How did Wright promote Broadacre City?
Wright refined the concept in books and articles until his death in 1959
In 1935, he exhibited a 12-foot by 12-foot scale model of Broadacre City at the Rockefeller Center
New Town
Influenced by Garden Cities movement within the United States, which included Forest Hills Garden, New York; Radburn, New Jersey (1928); Reston, Virginia; and Sunnyside Gardens, New York (1924); and Park Forest, Illinois. Radburn, New Jersey was designed by Clarence Stein and Henry Wright in 1928 and they used cul-de-sacs and greenways to separate pedestrian traffic from automobiles.
President Roosevelt established the Resettlement Administration during the Depression in 1935. This agency, ran by Rexford Tugwell, was responsible for the New Towns program, which developed three cities founded on Ebenezer Howard�s principles. These were; Greendale Wisconsin; Greenhills, Ohio; and Greenbelt, Maryland.
McMillan Plan
instrumental in developing DC
Georges-Eugène, Baron Haussmann, 1809-1891
It’s hard to overstate the urban legacy of Baron Haussmann, prefect of the Seine during the reign of France’s Emperor Napoleon III. Between 1853 and 1870, Haussmann used his authoritarian mandate to transform the medieval Paris into the paragon of a modern city.He ran broad new boulevards through maze-like old neighborhoods to slow the spread of disease and improve transportation (and, some historians have said, make it easier for troops to put down the armed rebellions that erupted in the French capital). The buildings that replaced the medieval quarters—with five or six stories and mansard roofs—have since become symbols of Paris and his remaking of it. Haussmann placed grand, secular monuments strategically along the sight lines of the new boulevards, and created parks and squares. New sewer and gas lines improved sanitation and, virtually overnight, transformed Paris into the City of Light.Needless to say, these changes came with significant costs. According to his own estimates, Haussmann’s renovation of Paris displaced 350,000 people, even as it employed one-fifth of Parisian workers. Historic fabric was destroyed, and the new look of the city was derided by some contemporaries as “triumphant vulgarity.” But “Haussmannization” was widely adopted across Europe at the end of the 19th century, shaping the forms of countless cities. Today, Haussmann-style streets and buildings are frequently cited as examples of walkable, livable urbanism, even if the prefect’s tactics were questionable.
Settlement House Movements
Jane Adams- Housing reform institutions where middle class settlement workers would live and share knowledge and culture with low-income neighbors. provided daycare, education and healthcare to poor in their community - Hull House in Chicago was Addams’s.
Cholera epidemic (1853)
John Snow determined using map and family interviews to understand how a hand pump caused the epidemic
Modernism/Radiant City
Le Corbusier (1922) - urban environment based on building, car and limited access highway. Housing and ofifce towers arranged in abstract formal relationships to maximize exposure to sun. Each group isolated from others in park-like settings with museums, stadiums, etc along waterfronts. Very little ornamentation and primarily box shaped buildings. Vertical architecture that would leave open space for people to enjoy as public landscaping. Peds/cyclists have dedicated routes, business districts connected by underground transit to nearby residences and commercial districts. Residences separated from industrial uses.
GRACE LEE BOGGS
Lee Boggs, a Chinese-American philosopher and political activist who spent decades striving for a second, more just American revolution, began her career as a brilliant young academic, moonlighting as a tenants-rights activist on Chicago’s South Side. From the early 1940s, she became enmeshed in radical black politics, with her belief in “the power that the black community has within itself to change this country when it begins to move.”In 1953, she married the African American leftist James Boggs in Detroit, and the two became a legendary activist duo there, hosting Malcolm X when he visited. By the late 1970s, Lee Boggs had distanced herself from the Black Power and New Left movements and focused her energies on neighborhood activism. She and her husband founded Detroit Summer, an intergenerational community arts and activism organization. She planted community gardens, organized workers, and fought crime in a city undergoing decline.In her later years, she became more involved in environmental and anti-war activism, but remained a popular figure in Detroit, with a regular column in the (now-shuttered) black newspaper the Michigan Citizen. The author of several books, Lee Boggs was the subject of the 2014 documentary American Revolutionary.
LEWIS MUMFORD
Lewis Mumford (1895–1990), author and critic, promoted the idea of planning through such books as The Culture of Cities (1938) and The City in History (1961), the latter of which received the National Book Award. He believed that urban planning should accentuate a natural relationship between people and their living spaces.The author of more than 30 books, Lewis Mumford was a public intellectual of remarkable breadth, with a critical view that spanned history, philosophy, city planning, technology, and literature. As his New York Times obituary noted, “there was scarcely any aspect of modern society that he left unexamined.” His best-known book may be 1961’s The City in History, which received the National Book Award.Raised in New York City, Mumford had an unconventional education, attending night school at City College without graduating, due to illness, and then taking courses at Columbia and the New School. He wrote the “Sky Line” column on architecture for The New Yorker for three decades.Mumford was not just a prolific and influential writer on urban matters. In 1923 he co-founded the Regional Planning Association of America, a well-connected group that promoted Ebenezer Howard’s planning principles. He lived those ideals, too, moving into Sunnyside Gardens in Queens, an innovative development of modestly priced apartments and townhouses, arranged around common green courts to emphasize urban nature and resident co-operation.Mumford’s star has dimmed since his death, and some know him today for the condescending title of his New Yorker review of The Death and Life of Great American Cities: “Mother Jacobs’ Home Remedies.” While he always seemed to look down on the life of the streets rather than be part of it, he was prescient about the risks of technology divorced from ethics in planning. His belief in planning for the public good may be due for a reappraisal in the age of climate change.As Richard Sennett—a disciple of Jacobs—notes in his recent book Building and Dwelling, solutions on the local scale that Jacobs advocated don’t get major infrastructure built or solve citywide problems. Mumford’s commitment to the Garden City was not naive utopianism: Sennett writes that Mumford, as a socialist, “thought that people, in order to fight, need to see what an alternative vision of the city might look like.”
Charles Lindbloom
Lindblom was one of the early developers and advocates of the theory of incrementalism in policy and decision-making.[3][4][5] That view (also called gradualism) takes a “baby-steps,” “muddling through,” or “Echternach-theory” approach to decision-making processes. In it, policy change is, under most circumstances, evolutionary, rather than revolutionary. He came to that view through his extensive studies of welfare policies and trade unions throughout the industrialized world. Those views are set out in two articles separated by 20 years: “The Science Of ‘Muddling Through’” (1959) and “Still Muddling, Not yet through” (1979), both of which were published in Public Administration Review.
IAN MCHARG
McHarg was a pioneering landscape architect from Scotland who advocated designs that work with, rather than against, a place’s ecology. In this respect, he helped move the field of landscape architecture into the realm of environmental planning.Published in the early days of the environmental movement, McHarg’s 1969 book Design With Nature influenced policies for managing coastlines, watersheds, and forests, and advocated for environmental review of major development projects. His use of separate map overlays to evaluate different ecological concerns—including climate, hydrology, and soil conditions—laid the intellectual groundwork for Geographic Information Systems (GIS), today’s most widely used digital-mapping technology.The planning and design firm that McHarg co-founded, now known as WRT, designed some of America’s most notable large-scale urban plans in the second half of the 20th century, including Baltimore’s Inner Harbor, the 1966 Lower Manhattan Master Plan, and the U.S. Capitol Master Plan in the 1980s, as well as The Woodlands, a planned suburb outside of Houston that straddles many creeks and lakes.McHarg’s greatest legacy might lie in the many minds he helped mold, whether through his early 1960s TV talk show “The House We Live In,” or via his popular courses at the University of Pennsylvania, whose landscape-architecture school he founded and led.
THE CITY IN HISTORY
MUMFORD (1961) Mumford argues for a world not in which technology rules, but rather in which it achieves a balance with nature. His ideal vision is what can be described as an “organic city,” where culture is not usurped by technological innovation but rather thrives with it. Mumford contrasts these cities with those constructed around wars, tyrants, poverty, etc. However, the book is not an attack on the city, but rather an evaluation of its growth, how it came to be, and where it is heading, as evidenced by the final chapter “Retrospect and Prospect.”
Resettlement Administration
New deal organization (FDR and Rex Tugwell)– that relocated struggling urban and rural families to communities planned by the federal government. Built greenbelt towns. The main focus of the RA was to now build relief camps in California for migratory workers, especially refugees from the drought-struck Dust Bowl of the Southwest.Greenbelt’s innovative design, based on both the garden cities of England and the late 1920s community of Radburn, New Jersey, features residential superblocks four to five times the size of a standard city block and homes with an unusual orientation. Service entries, normally considered back doors, faced the street and the garden side or front entries faced the interior of the block which was shared green space. This configuration provided access to walking paths that wound through the blocks and under roads via underpasses and which connected the homes to numerous parks and playgrounds, and to a town center. Greenbelt MC (near Washington DC) is one of three completed federal “green towns,” the others being Greendale, Wisconsin and Greenhills, Ohio. A fourth, planned for New Jersey, was never built. In 1997, Greenbelt’s innovative plan became a National Historic landmark.
Lawrence Veiller
New Law by Lawrence Veiller- outlawed dumbbell tenements in NY. required inspections and permits for construction and alterations and enforced new housing code. Required wide light and air between buildings, toilets and running water for each apartment. Also created tenement house department tasked with enforcing the regulations.
Tenement House Act of 1897
Old Law - Through NYC Hygiene of the Citizens Association campaign to improve housing and sanitation standards. required new tenements buildings to be constructed with narrow air shafts between structures, windows to the shafts, 2 toilets per floor, and 1 sq yard window in each room. 1st housing code that set standards for rooms. People took way too much advantage and it was literally shitty
Jr. Alfred Bettman
one of the key founders of modern urban planning. Zoning, as it is known today, can be attributed to his successful arguments before the U.S. Supreme Court, which resulted in the 1926 decision in favor of the Village of Euclid, Ohio versus Ambler Realty Company.
The concept of the “Comprehensive Plan,” as used in most cities across the U.S., was in no small part due to the work of Bettman and Ladislas Segoe on the “Cincinnati Plan.” (See City Plan for Cincinnati) Bettman also created the “Capital Improvements Budget.”
Homestead Act (1862)
Opened public land to settlers for a nominal fee and five years of residence. Signed by Lincoln after secession. Has turned over 10% of the country’s land area to private settlement. To claim land, had to be 21 or older, head of a household, live in the land, building a home, and farm for 5 years
Father of Regional Planning
Patrick Geddes
Father of Advocacy Planning
Paul Davidoff
Clarence Perry
Perry devised the neighbourhood unit plan, a residential community scheme disseminated through the Regional Plan of New York and Its Environs in 1929 that influenced planning in US cities.. neighborhood unit was mixed with garden city to create Radburn1) School should be in center so no child walked more than 1/4 mile to school and didn’t cross major roadways. School should have large play area entire community could use. should support 5-9k2) Major arterials are located along perimeter to eliminate through traffic3) Internal streets to be curvilinear for aesthetic and safety concerns, discourage through traffic and non local intrusion4) Local shopping along neighborhood’s perimeter or at main entrance5) at least 10% of land area dedicated to parks or open space
Ordinance of 1785
provided for the rectangular land survey and settlement of the Old Northwest. e.g., growth and development of
places over time, role of
transportation in shaping urban
form, cultural influences on the
form of places township = 36 sq mile of territory, 36 sections; each section = 640 acres, one square mile; used lat/long
Morrill Act (1862)
provided land grants for public domain to the states–each state recieved 30,000 acres of public land for each senator and house rep. Land was then sold and proceeds from sales to fund agricultural and mechanical schools for each state. Provided strong foundation for higher education from the government and shifted to applied studies instead of classics.
Serviceman’s Readjustment Act (1944)
provided World War II veterans with funds for college education, unemployment insurance, and housing. Benefits included low-cost mortgages, low-interest loans to start a business or farm, one year of unemployment compensation, and dedicated payments of tuition and living expenses to attend high school, college, or vocational school. An important provision of the G.I. Bill was low interest, zero down payment home loans for servicemen, with more favorable terms for new construction compared to existing housing. This encouraged millions of American families to move out of urban apartments and into suburban homes.
Utopianism
Pursuit of a community of society that has perfect qualities and is designed in such a way that the citizens do not have any problems. Plan for Chicago and Broadacre City (Frank Lloyd Wright) are examples.
Marshall Plan (1947)
reconstruction of Europe after WW2, provided $15b to rebuild cities, industries and infrastructure damaged by WW2. Encouraged commerce between Europe and USA by removing trade barriers.
Frederick Law Olmstead Sr.
Regarded as the founder of American landscape architecture, Frederick Law Olmsted (1822�1903) is best known for designing the grounds of New York City’s Central Park, the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C., the Biltmore Estate in North Carolina and the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
Taylor Grazing Act (1934)
regulated the use of the range in the west for conservation and decreased the amount of land available for homesteading out west. Act used to address increasing erosion of land resulting from grazing and was an attempt to organize grazing on public land.
Guy Tugwell
Rexford “Guy” Tugwell was the head of the Resettlement Administration and a member of Franklin D. Roosevelt’s “brains trust.” He worked on greenbelt city programs during Resettlement and later went on to serve as governor of Puerto Rico.
James Rouse
Rousted up dying downtowns and creating malls for young roustabouts (you see that?)Rouse is responsible for the development of Columbia, Maryland in the 1960s. Prior to that, he pioneered indoor shopping malls in the 1950s and festival marketplaces into dying downtowns like Inner Harbor in Baltimore or South Street Seaport in New York.
Charles Lindblom
Science of Muddling Through, Incrimentalism,–Incrementalism emphasizes the amelioration of concrete problems rather than the pursuit of abstract ideals such as social justice. Affected publics bring problems to government through a process Lindblom termed the social fragmentation of analysis.Dec 20, 2024
ROBERT MOSES
served as NYC Parks commissioner, head of state parks council, head of the state power commission, and chairman of the triborough bridge and tunnel authority. Built over 400 miles of parkways, 150,000 housing units, 13 bridges, and 600 playgrounds, but often displaced the poor to make room for middle income housing. Stopped from building a cross-Manhattan roadway by Jacob’s book “Death and Life of Great American Cities. Robert Moses (1888–1981) left his mark on New York City, Long Island, and Westchester County, New York, during the mid 20th century. Although never elected to public office, he was considered one of the most powerful persons in New York State government from the 1930s to the 1950s. He was chief in the design and construction of more than 400 miles of parkways, the Triborough Bridge, and Jones Beach, the world’s largest public bathing beach.Like Baron Haussmann, Moses presided over the transformation of a great city without ever holding elected office, embodying a top-down, authoritarian approach to urban planning. From the 1920s to the late 1960s, he held a diverse array of roles, often simultaneously, including parks commissioner for New York City and Long Island, New York City planning commissioner, and head of the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority.In addition to expanding and improving numerous parks in the New York City area, he used his powers to build an extensive parkway system, which eventually came to be seen as among the nation’s first freeways. Moses took particular pride in replacing the “Valley of Ashes,” referenced in The Great Gatsby, with Flushing Meadows, home of the 1939 and 1964 World’s Fairs. The Housing Act of 1949 gave Moses broad authority to engage in “slum clearance” for large-scale public housing projects as well as civic projects like Lincoln Center and the UN headquarters. In all, Moses was responsible for the construction of 13 bridges, 416 miles of parkways, and 150,000 housing units in greater New York City.But Moses also displaced 250,000 people during highway construction alone, according to his biographer Robert Caro. Moses’s Cross-Bronx expressway, in particular, was a notorious example of urban-renewal-era freeway building. The direct displacement and neighborhood fragmentation of that megaproject, which lasted from 1948 to 1972, played a major role in the economic decline of the Bronx.Moses was known as a bigot, and many of his most disruptive projects targeted low-income, minority areas. His philosophy of urban planning was no more sensitive: “When you operate in an overbuilt metropolis, you have to hack your way with a meat axe,” goes on of his maxims. Especially next to Jane Jacobs, against whom he is often pitted, Moses can look like a cartoonish villain. But his impact on the cityscape of New York was enormous, and many of his projects remain heavily used and beloved to this day.In an age of endless community engagement and discretionary review, some contemporary planners are wont to view his broad powers with envy. “Paradoxically, what is most needed to achieve Jane Jacobs’s vision is to deploy a Robert Moses strategy—redesigning our streets quickly and decisively for an increasingly urban age, this time committed to accommodating population growth and offering residents more options for getting around without a car,” planners Janette Sadik-Khan and Seth Solomonow recently wrote in CityLab.
Sir Raymond Unwin
Sir Raymond Unwin was an English town planner. He and Richard Barry Parker designed Letchworth, a neighborhood based on Ebenezer Howard’s Utopian plan. They later went on to plan the new garden suburb at Hampstead, now known as Hampstead Garden Suburb.The first Garden City was constructed in Letchworth in 1903. A second English Garden City was Hampstead, which was where cul-de-sacs were invented. Both communitieswere designed by Raymond Unwin and Barry Parker. However, in reality, no Garden Citywas even truly self-contained and eventually became residential subdivisions.
Edwin Chadwick
social reformer looked at life expectancy between those in towns and those in countryside. Established public health admin addressing drainage, garbage, sewage, and housing. Determined that health was a legitimate public interest
1987 Growth Machine Theory - Harvey and Molotch
The “Growth Machine Theory” of 1987, primarily attributed to sociologist Harvey Molotch, describes how cities are often operated as instruments for economic growth by a powerful coalition of local elites, including developers, real estate agents, and business leaders, who prioritize increasing land value and personal profit over the needs of the broader community, essentially turning the city into a “growth machine” to further their own interests.
Key points about the Growth Machine Theory:
Central Actors:
The “growth coalition” consists of individuals with a vested interest in land development, like real estate developers, bankers, and politicians, who actively work together to promote growth policies.
Goal of Growth:
The primary objective of this coalition is to maximize land value by promoting development projects, often at the expense of community needs like affordable housing or environmental concerns.
Political Manipulation:
This elite group uses their influence to manipulate local government policies, zoning regulations, and public funding to facilitate their desired development projects.
Impact on Communities:
The Growth Machine Theory argues that this focus on economic growth can lead to negative consequences for residents, including displacement, gentrification, and unequal distribution of benefits from development.
1990s Smart Growth / Sustainability
The “Smart Growth” movement, which focused on promoting sustainable and environmentally conscious urban development practices, gained significant momentum in the 1990s, with key organizations like the American Planning Association (APA) and the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) actively promoting its principles, which aimed to combat urban sprawl by encouraging compact development, mixed land uses, walkable neighborhoods, and diverse housing options.
1909 PLAN OF CHICAGO
The 1909 Plan of Chicago, also commonly referred to as the “Burnham Plan,” was a visionary Progressive Era proposal that sought to beautify Chicago and improve efficiency of commerce. Published through the support of the Commercial Club of Chicago, the plan used renderings to convey the possible scenarios for a rapidly growing city. Although many of its aspirational ideas never became reality, as a document, the Plan of Chicago continues to serve as a reference in urban design today.Beginning in 1906, a group of businessmen recognized the need to prepare a plan for Chicago’s growth and entrusted architect Daniel Burnham to develop a plan to address Chicago’s needs. Already famous for his role as Director of Works for the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago, Daniel Burnham famously affirmed that Chicago should “make no little plans” for its future. He hired co-author Edward H. Bennett, then the two began their work.Over the course of nearly three years, Burnham and Bennett researched numerous cities around the world. They studied how the growth of these cities and how large-scale infrastructure influenced the economy and mobility of their inhabitants. As a result, the Plan of Chicago was broken down into six categories and focused on the economic, transportation and social needs of Chicagoans.The six categories, as laid out by Burnham and Bennett in the final chapter of the Plan of Chicago, are as follows:
The improvement of the lake front.The creation of a system of highways outside the city.
The improvement of railway terminals, and the development of a complete traction system for both freight and passengers.
The acquisition of an outer park system, and of parkway circuits.
The systematic arrangement of the streets and avenues within the city, in order to facilitate the movement to and from the business district.
The development of centers of intellectual life and of civic administration, so related as to give coherence and unity to the city.
While these principle design elements provided a plan for Chicago, Burnham and Bennett’s plan did not immediately change the city. The plan was presented to the City Council of Chicago in July 1909. The council created a planning commission by November of that year with Mayor Fred A. Busse appointing Charles H. Wacker as permanent chair of the commission. Projects such as the widening of Chicago’s streets and boulevards took shape over the next few decades. New streets were introduced, such as Wacker Drive along the Chicago River.
One of the most noticeable portions of the plan to come to fruition is the city’s 25 miles of lakefront (out of its 29 miles of lakeshore) that serve as public parkland. Although many of Burnham’s other initiatives were not directly implemented, the Plan of Chicago did have a profound impact on city planning. Burnham and Bennett wrote in its closing, “If, therefore, the plan is a good one, its adoption and realization will produce for us conditions in which business enterprises can be carried on with the utmost economy.”
While the Plan of Chicago will never be fully realized, it continues to provide solutions and possibilities for the ever-changing Chicago—and for other cities around the globe.
City Efficient Movement � 1920s Standardization (SSZEA/SCPEA)
The basic foundation for planning and zoning in the U.S. was laid by two standard state enabling acts published by the U.S. Department of Commerce in the 1920s. For many states, the Standard Acts, as they are known, still supply the institutional structure, although some procedural and substantive components may have changed.
City Functional Movement - 1940s
The City Functional movement was a prominent urban planning movement in the 1940s that focused on efficiency and functionalism. It was influenced by the Modernist Movement of the 1930s, which called for architecture that would improve the health and well-being of its inhabitants.
Key ideas
Functionalism: The idea that cities should be rational and healthy, with large-scale areas dedicated to single functions
Administrative efficiency: The idea that planning should be closely integrated with local government
Human proportions: The idea that urban design should be based on human proportions
City Humane Movement 1930s � New Deal
The City Humane movement was a social policy that focused on housing and jobs in the 1930s after the Great Depression. The movement built experimental Greenbelt Towns based on the ideas of Ebenezer Howard.
What did the City Humane movement do?
Built Greenbelt Towns, which were suburban towns planned in advance and surrounded by agricultural land
Focused on social policy issues like jobs and housing
What other housing and urban renewal efforts happened in the 1930s?
Congress passed a series of housing acts that funded public housing, slum clearance, and urban renewal
The City Functional movement focused on administrative efficiency and functionalism
Le Corbusier, 1887-1965
The early days of Modernist architecture and planning were heady times, and no one embodied them more than Le Corbusier (born in Switzerland as Charles-Édouard Jeanneret). His Five Points of Architecture helped spur a revolution in design, enabled by the new material of reinforced concrete. Two of the “points” in his manifesto were an open floor plan—because concrete supporting columns made internal load-bearing walls unnecessary—and a “free” facade, or exterior walls that were not load-bearing, either, so could be designed as the architect wished. The new approach is exemplified by the Villa Savoye, a ribbon-windowed house set on slender piloti, or concrete piers. Le Corbusier played a major role in the emergence of the International Style, which became very popular for high-rise office buildings at midcentury.As early as 1922, Le Corbusier agitated for the wholesale demolition of old cities and their replacement by rational superblocks of high-rise offices and apartment buildings. Although his Plan Voisin to reconstruct Paris was never implemented, the “towers in the park” model proved influential from the Soviet bloc to American public housing projects such as Pruitt-Igoe in St. Louis. Corbusier’s plan for Chandigarh, India—the only one of his urban plans ever executed on a significant scale—is notable for its monumental civic buildings and broad boulevards.Le Corbusier’s ideas for cities have received plenty of criticism. But the architectural genius of works like the Chapel of Notre Dame du Haut in Ronchamp, France, is in no doubt. His raw-concrete Unité d’Habitation in Marseille inspired the Brutalist movement in architecture and utopian social-housing projects around the world.
James Howard Kunstler
The Geography of Nowhere (1994), a history of American suburbia and urban development, The Long Emergency (2005), and Too Much Magic (2012). In The Long Emergency he imagines peak oil and oil depletion resulting in the end of industrialized society, forcing Americans to live in smaller-scale, localized, agrarian (or semi-agrarian) communities
Public Health Movement - Late 1800s to 1920
The public health movement in the late 1800s to 1920s was a period of reform that aimed to improve the health of the public. This movement was characterized by a shared understanding of the causes of disease and the need for sweeping action to promote public health.
A Ladder of Citizen Participation
THEORY, ARNSTEIN: Citizen participation in democratic processes, if it is to be considered “participation” in any genuine or practice sense, requires the redistribution of power. In Arnstein’s formulation, citizen participation is citizen power. Without an authentic reallocation of power—in the form of money or decision-making authority, for example—participation merely “allows the powerholders to claim that all sides were considered, but makes it possible for only some of those sides to benefit. It maintains the status quo.1) MANIPULATION2) THERAPY3) INFORMING4) CONSULTATION5) PLACATION6) PARTNERSHIP7) DELEGATED POWER8) CITIZEN CONTROL
Land Ordinance of 1785
Thomas Jefferson outlined a system of designing and surveying the lands to determine the boundaries as we added the west. Rectangular land survey was based on township, six mile square (36 sq. miles) and land was sold as auctions for a minimum bid of $1 per acre.
Alan Altshuler
Transportation secretary for MA during big dig–invented shifting most of the funds into public transportation and initiating the studies that have now led to the Big Dig. Alan was the secretary who led that process and he also did an extremely skillful job at working to get the legislation needed to do these things. It’s one thing to make a policy statement that you’re going to transform the MBTA or that you’re going to take highway funds and use them for transportation, but you had to change the law to make those things happen and Altshuler basically got a major reorganization of the BMTA through in 1973 and the same year he really was one of the primary architects of the change in federal law that permitted cities to make decisions to use interstate highway funds for public transportation, rather than the highway, and give what’s now called flexibility. That really was invented in Boston by Alan Altshuler.
Radburn Style
US - based public housing method, backyards facing each other and front yards accessed by public streets. Due to concentration of poverty and lack of “eyes on the street”, crime was rampant
Chicago World’s Fair
White City inspiration created by Daniel Burnham, inspiration for 1909 Chicago Pan.
WILLIAM WHYTE
Whyte is best known for The Organization Man, his bestselling indictment of the culture of conformity in 1950s suburbia and corporate America. His emphasis on creativity and self-expression would be an inspiration for future urbanists and social critics, including Jane Jacobs, with whom he worked at Fortune, and contemporary writers like Richard Florida and David Brooks.Later in his career, “Holly” Whyte, as he was known, traded sweeping pop sociology for fine-grained urban-design analysis. His Street Life Project sought to understand why some New York City parks and plazas were well used, and others studiously avoided. Aided by time-lapse photography, Whyte charted how pedestrians moved through space; where they would sit to eat lunch; where they would stop and converse; and where they would move hurriedly on their way.He found that the most-used plazas in New York were more likely to have people in pairs or groups, and that stepped seating arrangements make a plaza more attractive by allowing loiterers to observe “the theater of the street,” among many other observations. Assisted by female graduate students, he was also one of the first researchers to study the different ways men and women engage with urban space.A conservationist as well as a lover of cities, Whyte applied his small-scale observations to advocate for greater investment in downtowns as opposed to sprawl. One of his maxims, “a good space beckons people in,” sounds obvious now, but only became so thanks to meticulous studies like his own.
Jacob Riis
Wrote book changing how people thought about how the other half lived, housing and neighborhood reform. He is known for using his photographic and journalistic talents to help the impoverished in New York City; those impoverished New Yorkers were the subject of most of his prolific writings and photography. He endorsed the implementation of “model tenements” in New York.
Tennessee Valley Authority, 1933
� Convert two munitions factories and one hydroelectric plant into a regional power authority and a factory producing fertilizer. � First example of multi-state planning for power and flood control
Port Authority of NY and NJ, 1921
� Created to run most regional transportation infrastructure (bridges, tunnels, airports, seaports) within NY-NJ Port District along Hudson and East Rivers � In charge World Trade Center plaza rebuilding
